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Computer System Architecture: A Comprehensive Guide

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This comprehensive guide delves into the fundamental concepts of computer system architecture, exploring the intricate relationships between hardware and software components. From the core subsystems like the CPU, main memory, and input/output, to the intricacies of operating systems and network addressing, this document provides a detailed understanding of how computers function. It also covers essential maintenance practices for optimizing system performance and troubleshooting common issues.

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COMPUTER SYSTEM
ARCHITECTURE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
Lo1................................................................................................................................................... 2
P1 identify the main subsystems of a computer and explain how they are organized and
connected..................................................................................................................................... 2
P2 Explain the purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and include details on its
operation...................................................................................................................................... 7
Lo2................................................................................................................................................... 9
P3 Describe a range of different operating systems including the purpose, use and hardware
requirements of each....................................................................................................................9
P4 Discuss the key features associated with the architecture of an operating system...............12
Lo3................................................................................................................................................. 14
P5 Explain the relationships between hardware and network addresses including their use with
regards to networking devices and components........................................................................14
P6 Setup, configure and document appropriate hardware and software systems to establish
computer based network connectivity....................................................................................... 16
Lo4................................................................................................................................................. 17
P7 Use information gathering methods to assess troubleshoot and document solutions to a
number of different technical hardware, software and networking issues................................17
P8 Conduct and document a range of maintenance activities with regards to computer
hardware and software............................................................................................................... 20
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 25
References......................................................................................................................................26

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Department and IP addresses...........................................................................................16
Table 2: Common computer system issue along with measures...................................................18

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Interaction between different subsystems of a computer.................................................2
Figure 2: Central processing Unit....................................................................................................3
Figure 3: Memory Hierarchy........................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4: Input/output Subsystem....................................................................................................5
Figure 5: CPU organization along with System bus........................................................................6
Figure 6: Phases of Instruction Cycle.............................................................................................. 7
Figure 7: Ubuntu desktop.............................................................................................................. 10
Figure 8: Window 10 Screenshot.................................................................................................. 11
Figure 9: Operating Systems Architecture....................................................................................12
Figure 10: Monolithic, Microkernel and Hybrid operating sytsem...............................................13
Figure 11: Setting Up a Computer network...................................................................................16
Figure 12: File explorer.................................................................................................................21
Figure 13: C: drive of the computer..............................................................................................21
Figure 14: Drive to optimise..........................................................................................................22
Figure 15: Select drive for its optimization...................................................................................22
Figure 16: fragmentation Percentage.............................................................................................23
Figure 17: Scanning the system with Antivirus.............................................................................24

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Introduction
Computer architecture is a part of Computer engineering in which rule and method for
organizing the computer system and its function is defined. Computer architecture is the
specification that states the interaction established between the hardware and software
components. Presently the report discusses about computer’s subsystems. The report also
discusses about most important computer units such as Central Processing Unit and Operating
System. Network addresses will also be discussed in this report. Lastly, report discuss about the
various maintaining task that is required for performance boosting of the computer system.
1

Lo1
P1 identify the main subsystems of a computer and explain how they are organized and
connected
Computer system is an electronic device that was designed for performing various task like data
calculations and data processing according to the instruction provided by the user. The man
purpose of the device is to minimize human efforts. A computer system consist of both hardware
and software components for performing various functions (Null, and Lobur, 2014).
A computer system is subdivided broadly into four main subsystems, the processor, main
memory, input/ output subsystem and lastly the system bus for establishing connection between
them (Comer, 2017).
Figure 1: Interaction between different subsystems of a computer
Central processing Unit: One of the most important units of a computer system is its processing
Unit. The processor performs complex functions and operations of the computer (Müller, and
Paul, 2013). It is Chip present attached with them motherboard of the computer system that is
used for gathering various data and instructions from system board as well as software
application.
2

Figure 2: Central processing Unit
The CPU of a computer has components like ALU, register and the Control unit. The arithmetic
performs arithmetic operation and logic on the data it is provided with. Register of the CPU are
used for holding the data temporarily. The control unit of the CPU is responsible for controlling
the function and operation of every other subsystem of a computer. CPU processes a data or
instruction in a time period of less than milliseconds.
Main memory
The main memory of a computer system is referred to the collection different location for storage
that has unique identifier ‘addresses. Main memory is also called as Random access memory or
RAM. Main memory is the internal physical memory. The main memory of the computer is used
for storing various information and data along with Operating system software, software
application etc. this helps in faster task execution.
Main memory of the computer system is categories into: RAM and ROM. Both of the memory is
based on semiconductor (Moto, 2012. ). RAM or the Random Access Memory is used for storing
program code and data. Data stored in this memory can be read and write by the CPU can read,
however this memory is volatile and in case of discontinued power supply the data gets deleted.
ROM or the Read Only Memory stores the program code, this is a no-volatile memory and the
CPU is capable of only reading.
Memory hierarchy
3

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A user of a Computer system required numerous amount of memory, which must be fast as well
as inexpensive. Faster the memory is higher is cost. Thus hierarchical levels of memory is
created for users understanding.
Figure 3: Memory Hierarchy
(Source: https://cs.uwec.edu/~buipj/teaching/cs.352.f12/lectures/lecture_08.html, 2018)
Input/output Subsystem: the I/O subsystem is referred to various devices that allow a computer
system to establish communication with external world and also helps in for storing programs
and data (Null, and Lobur, 2014). Keyboards, mouse, card readers, mouse, touch screens,
scanner are the input devices that allows entry of data to the computer system for processing
them further. While, monitor, printers, speakers are referred as the output devices which transmit
the processed data to the user after processing trough the processor .
4

Figure 4: Input/output Subsystem
(Source: http://www.plantation-productions.com/Webster/www.artofasm.com/Windows/
HTML/IO.html, 2018)
I/O devices are used for transferring data between various I/O peripherals and primary memory.
The I/O devices are not directly connected to CPU, it has interface for handling data transfers.
Interface has the job to converts bus signals of the system into acceptable format. CPU
communicates using I/O registers with the external devices.
System Bus: One of the most important subsystems of a computer is its system bus. This is a
pathway that consists of a connector and cables, which are utilized for data transmission among
main memory as well as CPU. The system bus provides a communication path for transmitting
control and data signals (Chu, 2014).
5

Figure 5: CPU along with System bus
System buses are of three types control bus, data bus and address bus. And all the buses have
individual functionality in the overall computer system. The Control bus is used for carrying
control system, and establishes proper coordination and manages time factor for controlling
various computer functions. The Address bus is used for specifying the location of memory that
is used for transferring the data. Lastly, Data bus is used for carrying data among the peripherals,
memory and the processor.
6

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P2 explain the purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and include details on its operation
Central Processing Unit or the CPU is the heart and the brain of the computer forming the central
component. In a computer system all the function and operation it perform is mostly performed
by CPU. It is responsible for handling all the instruction that is given by the hardware or the
software (Husain, et al 2017). The main purpose of a CPU in the computer system is performs
program instructions as per the users or the system needs. The central processing unit has
arithmetic and logical unit responsible for the execution of the operations and commands
whereas control unit is liable to manage the interaction with peripherals and devices.
How instruction is processed in arithmetic logical unit
Irrespective of the type, size or origin, all the CPUs of computer system carry out basic
instruction cycle having Steps:
1. Fetch
2. Decode
3. Execute
4. Halt
Figure 6: Phases of Instruction Cycle
(Source: instruction-cycle, 2018)
Fetch: In this phase fetch, the instructions are read by the processor of the computer system for
operating various tasks accordingly from a particular memory address. The PC or Program
counter is used for recording the address of various instructions.
7

Decode: In the next phase of the instruction cycle, the Instruction are decode by using the
decoder circuit from the memory after fetching. Decoded instructions then form different signals
that are used for controlling other areas of the processor.
Execute: the instruction at last are executed in this phase.
Working with control unit
The Fundamental operation performed by the CPU is associated with instruction execution of by
following a proper sequence manner. All the computer instructions that must be executed are
stored in the memory. The CPU of the device operates the on the basis of instruction cycle.
When a instruction is executed effectively the overall process tends to replicate itself repeatedly
for other instruction in the same sequence. The next instruction is also continued with fetching as
the program counter is incremented. However, in case of jump instruction, program counter
function in slightly different, it now holds the address of the instruction that is to be jumped to.
8

Lo2
P3 Describe a range of different operating systems including the purpose, use and hardware
requirements of each
Operating system
Operating system is software that is pre-installed in the hard drive a computer. Operating system
is used for establishing proper communication between all the hardware and software
components present in the computer system. If a computer system has no operating system
installed in it, then the hardware configure along with the programs have no significance
(Dawson et al, 2013). It is the operating system that is responsible for performing different
functions and operation of a computer system including handling the I/O devices, file and
memory management etc.
Desktop operating systems are used in the personal computers to provide the networking, and
adequate performance to meet the routine operations whereas network operating systems are
used to manage the communication and services for the various users connected to the device or
server. Network operating system has limited graphical animations but provides effective tools
for the network management and performance monitoring. Also, mobile operating systems are
used on the mobile devices those are limited in resources and performance. For example, android
and Mac iOS are popular mobile platform. Also, embedded operating systems are used in the
cars and other electronic devices to add the functionality.
Types of Operating system
At present the familiar operating systems that are used for computer desktops are basically
Ubuntu, Windows, Linux and also Mac OS X. All of these OS are quite different from one
another according to their programming language, capabilities, as well their features. However,
all this OS performs vary similar function that is to provide user the graphical user interface and
also to manage the files of the computer desktop (Leva, et al 2013). OS is used for performing
various tasks by the help of various programs and software installed in it. Some operating system
such as windows and Linux can be configured in standard hardware. But OS such as MAC OS X
is exclusively designed and installed in the system that Apple manufactures.
9

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Ubuntu: Ubuntu is a Linux Operating System designed for desktop. This OS is an open source
and free of cost. Main reason of its popularity is no charge installation and codes can be written
in any local language (Love, 2013). A user of Ubuntu has the liberty to customize the software
according to their need by altering the codes of the software. Ubuntu is produced Canonical, and
they also offer no cost guarantee along with free security updates in every 6 months.
System requirement:
Ubuntu has very less system requirement in comparison to other OS. It requires a processor of 2
GHz, 25 GB hard-drive space, minimum 2GB RAM, 1024x768 VGA screen resolution. No
antivirus is required and Internet access is helpful while using the OS.
Figure 7: Ubuntu desktop
Windows 10: One of the most widely used operating system all over the world is Windows.
Windows 10 is the latest version in the family of OS that is developed by Microsoft. This OS is
modifies and code can be altered only by Microsoft in case of changes needed. This operating
system is considered as the most user friendliness, secured and performance is fastest (Giuffrida
et al, 2012).
System requirement:
10

For proper functionality and installation of windows in a computer system, it requires a dual
core processor having at least 1 gigahertz, 2 GB RAM for 64 bit OS and 1GB RAM for 32bit
system, similarly Hard disk space of 16 GB for 32 bit and 20 GB for 64 bit OS, LONG WITH A
graphic card
Figure 8: Window 10 Screenshot
Mac OS X: This is a graphical Operating System. Apple Inc. is the creator and developer of
MAC OS. It is costly in compared to its competitor OS and can be installed only on computer
that is manufactured by Apple. Mac OS is not an open source OS (Levin, 2012). However,
installation of application in this OS is quite quicker and supports Zero-config printing.
System requirement:
It requires processor Intel Core 2 Duo Processor, 1 GB RAM, 5GB disk space.
11

P4 Discuss the key features associated with the architecture of an operating system.
Operating system is collection of various softwares which offers different services according to
the computer programs. An operating system consist of utility programs as well the kernel. The
main function of the kernel is to controls the hardware resources allocation, whereas the utility
programs are used for enhancing the productivity of a computer system (Dautenhahn, et al 2015).
Operating Systems Architecture
Figure 9: Operating Systems Architecture
(Source: https://www.serveradminz.com, 2018)
Operating system kernel
Kernel of the operating system as shown in the figure above serves as intermediary layer
between application programs and various hardware devices. Using a kernel interaction between
the software along with underlying hardware is possible through system calls. Whenever the
kernel receives a service request, it immediate translates those signals into instructions for their
execution by the CPU. The method of request handling of different operating system kernels
differs.
12

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Figure 10: Monolithic, Microkernel and Hybrid operating system
In case of a microkernel design of the operating system, kernel does not have any function.
Here every task is allotted to separate programs or servers. The operating system is served by the
server and the kernel is left with only function of mapping request to the server for their
execution. Size of the kernel is reduced along with increase of stability. However, overall
performance of microkernel is lower than monolithic kernel (Bell, et al 2014).
However in monolithic kernel, every code that is needed by a computer for perform task related
to kernel is present here. All the device drivers and the core operating system functions are
present. Behaviors of one function can be modified by the other as all the functions reside in the
same memory location. Example: DOS, BSD, Linux, and OpenVMS.
Hybrid kernels are similar to microkernel, however here t not all the request are allotted to
server, some code are also present in the kernel space similar to monolithic kernels. This
operating system has both performance as well as modularity. Examples: Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows, etc.
13

Lo3
P5 Explain the relationships between hardware and network addresses including their use with
regards to networking devices and components
Hardware and network addresses are unique node in a network. In IP network every device has
both IP and MAC address. MAC Address is also referred as the Hardware or physical address,
which is a hard coded 48-bit address. This address in burned into the ROM of the NIC or the
Network Interface Card. MAC address is a 6-paired or 12 digit hexadecimal number. The MAC
address is written in MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS or MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS format. The first 3
bytes i.e. MM:MM:MM is the manufacturer’s address, this is also known as the Organizationally
Unique Identifier e OUI number. However the next half i.e. SS-SS-SS is the serial number of the
NIC, this number is assigned by the manufacturer of the network adapter.
Theoretical there are about 281,474,976,710,656 addresses. No devices in the network have the
same MAC address. This address is implemented in OSI model and works mostly at the data
link layer. Through these address computers in the network is uniquely identified. In the
windows machine the MAC address can be retrieve by applying command like ipconfig/all in the
command prompt.
On other hand, the IP Address is implemented in the network layer of the OSI/TCP/IP model. IP
address of a device is the logical address that is mostly assigned by the ISP, Internet service
provider or the network administrator. The IP address of a device gets changed every time a
device is connected to the network. IP address of a computer system exposes about the elements
of the network. The IP address is needed only when a system wants to transmit data in the
network through IP layer using the TCP/IP suite. The IP address and its bit changes depending
upon the version of IP Addressing used by the system, for IPV4 the IP address is 32 bit long
whereas for IPV6 it is 128 bits long. These addresses are assigned on the basis of geographic
location of the computer system. 127.0.0.1 is a unique IP address that is also known as local host
and for every computer this address is reserved.
Differences between IP Address and MAC Address of a device
14

1. IP address of a networking device is effective in identifying network connection.
Whereas, the Mac address is effective in identifying the computing device which is
participating in the network.
2. MAC address is a 6 byte or 48 bits hexadecimal address, on other hand the IP address has
two different versions, for IPv4 the address is of 32-bit and for IPv6 the IP address of a
system is of 128-bit.
3. For a device the manufacture of the hardware interface is responsible for assigning the
MAC address. However, IP address of a system is assigned by either the ISP Internet
service provider or by the network administrator.
4. For retrieving MAC address of a device ARP protocol is implemented, and for retrieving
IP address RARP protocol is used.
15

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P6 Setup, configure and document appropriate hardware and software systems to establish
computer based network connectivity
Figure 11: Setting Up a Computer network
Table 1: Department and IP addresses
Finance department: 192.168.2.6- 198.168.2.15
Design department: 192.168.2.16- 198.162.2.56
Sale department : 192.168.2.58- 198.162.2.123
Server: 192.168.2.2- 198.162.2.5
A network is created for an organization having various departments. Class C address is used for
allocating the IP address for the devices in the network. The network design is created by using
adequate switches for device connectivity in the organization. A main switch is used for
connecting all the departmental switches present in different location. This is connected with a
router for external network. for network security the r outer is connected with a firewall that
monitors the network traffic using ACLs.
16

Lo4
P7 Use information gathering methods to assess troubleshoot and document solutions to a
number of different technical hardware, software and networking issues.
For troubleshooting and proper maintenance of the computer system, the Network Administrator
must adopt various measures and methods both physically or through softwares. For mitigating
the issues, the network administrator initially need to generate set of questionnaire for the
computer system user for identifying the issues they are currently facing. The response of the
respondents are then studied and analyzed and accordingly proper measures are taken.
I. Is there any issues of software or hardware in the computer system you are using
currently?
a) Yes
b) No
II. What is the most common issue you face while working in the computer?
a) Software
b) Hardware
c) Networking
d) All of the above
III. Are you capable of fetching data from the internet through the current device in the
network?
a) Yes
b) No
IV. What is the common hardware trouble in your computer system?
a) Improper peripherals devices
b) Issues of Overheating
c) Slow system boot
d) Noises
V. Do you have a antivirus software in your system?
a) Yes
b) No
VI. How often you scan your computer?
17

a) Once a week
b) Once a month
c) Once a year
d) Never
e) As pr computer’s suggestion
VII. What is the most frequently happening software problem in your computer
systems?
a) Computer freezes
b) Google not function
c) Pop-up ads
d) Attachments don’t open
VIII. Do you back-up you data regularly?
a) Yes
b) No
From the above response of the respondent the most common issues that the users are currently
facing is overheating, virus attack as well as error caused by users.
Table 2: Common computer system issue along with measures
Common Issues Measures to be taken
One of the most common issues is overheating that
users are currently facing. The prolonged
overheating can lead to shortening of the
computer’s life and performance. Overheating is
mainly due to improper cooling device installation
or due to cheap cooling (Nissim, et al 2014).
The dust of the fan of the computer should be
cleaned physically using blower
Due to virus and malicious code enter in the
computer system while downloading files from
internet result in malicious activities which
ultimately may leads to system failure, data loss and
unwanted access and connectivity issue.
It is recommended that all the system must have
proper and updated Anti-virus. Proper switching
system must be applied for maintaining security
along with firewall system for network traffic
monitoring.
User error is caused because of unconscious
mistake and errors caused by the while using the
Hardware Installation must be done in supervision
of administrator.
18

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computer system. Incorrect installation may also
lead to these issues.
19

P8 Conduct and document a range of maintenance activities with regards to computer hardware
and software.
Hardware Clean-up:
Computer system generates lot of heat during processing, thus the motherboard of the computer
has a pre-installed fan that cools the system down by pulling in cool air from the surrounding.
While drawing the air inside the fans also pull in the dust and small particle present that get stick
to the fan. This in the course of time forms a layer interrupting the cooling process by generating
more heat from the processor (Nissim, et al 2014). Thus the dust from the fan must be cleaned
out by opening the case of the processor either by a blower or a damp cloth. The outer part of the
computer must also be clean using a blower to avoid any dust deposition.
Disk defragmentation:
Defragmenting process is the arrangement of the fragmented files located in the hard drive.
Using this process space of the disk space is optimized for storing other files too. This process is
used for enhancing the performance of the computer. Defragmentation helps in gathering the
fragmented file, thus OS can read the file faster, and it will be supporting in faster processing.
Fragmentation mainly happens C: drive in computer system using windows OS.
Defragmentation of C:\ Drive for windows is :
1. Initially click on the Start button.
20

2. Click Open the File Explorer.
Figure 12: File explorer
3. Click open the C : drive
4. Option for Properties is clicked next.
Figure 13: C: drive of the computer
5. Tools tab is selected next.
6. Optimize button is chosen.
21

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Figure 14: Drive to optimise
Figure 15: Select drive for its optimization
22

7. Analyze tab is clicked for the process of defragmenting, the percentage of fragmentation
is displayed.
Figure 16: fragmentation Percentage
8. Optimization of selected volume.
9. Restart computer system.
23

Antivirus updates/scanning
Computer may get infected by Virus that may result in terminating various computer operations
which a computer system performs. The overall maintenance becomes null in case the computer
get infected by malicious codes or virus. Thus, the computer system must be installed with a
antivirus software and the system must be regularly scanned. When a user installs a third party
anti-virus, then it should be from a authenticated site.
Figure 17: Scanning the system with Antivirus
24

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Conclusion
Computer system is used for performing different task so that manual effort can be minimized. A
computer system consists has both hardware and software components. The key component of a
computer system is the Central processing unit and the Operating system. The above report has
discussed the purpose, importance and function of these components. In the above report,
address of computer system has also been discussed along with various issues that users are
currently facing. Various tools and techniques used for maintenance of the computer system has
also been discussed in this report for enhancing the overall performance of the computer system.
25

References
Books and journals
 Bell, P., Jividen, D., Melnick, T., Gartenfeld, M. and Tello, E., 2014. Guidance on
Successful Computer Maintenance Management System (CMMS) Selection and
Practices
 Chu, Y. ed., 2014. High-level language computer architecture. Academic Press.
 Comer, D., 2017. Essentials of computer architecture. Chapman and Hall/CRC.
 Dautenhahn, N., Kasampalis, T., Dietz, W., Criswell, J. and Adve, V., 2015, March.
Nested kernel: An operating system architecture for intra-kernel privilege separation.
In ACM SIGPLAN Notices (Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 191-206). ACM.
 Dawson-Haggerty, S., Krioukov, A., Taneja, J., Karandikar, S., Fierro, G., Kitaev, N. and
Culler, D.E., 2013, April. BOSS: Building Operating System Services. In NSDI (Vol. 13,
pp. 443-458).
 Giuffrida, C., Kuijsten, A. and Tanenbaum, A.S., 2012, August. Enhanced Operating
System Security Through Efficient and Fine-grained Address Space Randomization.
In USENIX Security Symposium (pp. 475-490).
 Husain, S.M.A. and Printz, R.P., ClearCube Tech Inc, 2017. Computer system image
clustering architecture and use. U.S. Patent 9,537,949.
 Leva, A., Maggio, M., Papadopoulos, A.V. and Terraneo, F., 2013. Control-based
operating system design. Institution of Engineering and Technology.
 Levin, J., 2012. Mac OS X and IOS Internals: To the Apple's Core. John Wiley & Sons.
 Love, R., 2013. Linux System Programming: Talking Directly to the Kernel and C
Library. " O'Reilly Media, Inc.".
 Moto-Oka, T. ed., 2012. Fifth generation computer systems. Elsevier.
 Müller, S.M. and Paul, W.J., 2013. Computer architecture: complexity and correctness.
Springer Science & Business Media.
 Nissim, N., Moskovitch, R., Rokach, L. and Elovici, Y., 2014. Novel active learning
methods for enhanced PC malware detection in windows OS. Expert Systems with
Applications, 41(13), pp.5843-5857.
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 Null, L. and Lobur, J., 2014. The essentials of computer organization and architecture.
Jones & Bartlett Publishers
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Computer System Architecture: A Comprehensive Guide

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