Information Security in Arab Region

This thesis explores the impact of Arab culture and trust on information security behaviors, particularly in the context of Western IT technology transfer. It examines the mismatch between Western information security awareness training and local cultural values, exploring the role of trust dynamics, information sharing practices, and personality factors. The research utilizes a mixed-methods approach, including surveys, interviews, and a walkthrough data privacy method, to provide insights into the challenges and potential solutions for enhancing information security in the Arab region.

Contents
1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................5
1.1Overview.................................................................................................................................5
1.1.1Overview of Arab Region.................................................................................................5
2 Information security and human behaviours ................................................................................7
3Non-academic contribution ...........................................................................................................9
Overview of Wasta and Islam..........................................................................................................9
3.1Trust......................................................................................................................................11
3.2 The importance of family.....................................................................................................12
4 Literature review ........................................................................................................................14
Overview and structure..............................................................................................................14
4.1 Objectivise and orientation ..................................................................................................15
4.1.1Culture............................................................................................................................15
4.1.2 Trust dynamics .............................................................................................................16
4.1.4 Mismatch with western IT Technology ...................................................................17
4.1.5 Personality types............................................................................................................18
5 Introduction ................................................................................................................................18
Overview.......................................................................................................................................18
5.1 Overview of Personality, Trust and Culture within Arab Region........................................20
5.2 Cultural similarity................................................................................................................22
5.3 Research in Culture by Hofstede..........................................................................................25
5.4 Trust.....................................................................................................................................27

5.4.1 Trust and Relationships.................................................................................................27
5.4.2 Arab cultural antecedents of trust..................................................................................29
5.4.3 The Universal Approach towards Trust.........................................................................31
5.4.4 Openness to Communication.........................................................................................32
5.4.5 Relationship on Sharing Information............................................................................32
5.4.6 Variables of Shared Culture, Environment and Values in Communication..................33
5.4.7 Style of Management in the Arab world.......................................................................35
5.4.8 Trust in Diversity...........................................................................................................35
5 .5 Western Information Technology.......................................................................................37
5.6 Attitudes affecting the information security behaviours ....................................................39
5.7 Personality Factors effects on attitude towards information security..................................50
5.7.1 Neuroticism ..................................................................................................................51
5.7.2 Extraversion –Introversion............................................................................................52
5.7.3 Openness .......................................................................................................................53
5.7.4 Agreeableness................................................................................................................53
5.7.5 Conscientiousness .......................................................................................................53
5.8 Personality traits, Information sharing, and Trust................................................................54
3 Methodology chapter..................................................................................................................56
..................................................................................................................................................57
3.1 Research Questions..............................................................................................................57
3.2 Methods and Approaches.....................................................................................................59
3.3 Proposed methods................................................................................................................61
3.3 Rational selection for methodology.....................................................................................80
3.4 Research Paradigm...............................................................................................................82
3.5 Rationale for the Selection of Interpretivism Research Paradigm.......................................85

3.6 Research Design...................................................................................................................85
3.7 Rationale for the Selection of Exploratory Research Design...............................................86
3.8 Use of Mixed Methods- Qualitative and Quantitative.........................................................87
3.9 Research Approach..................................................................................................................87
3.10 Rationale for the Selection of Inductive Research Approach............................................88
3.11 Data Collection Methods.......................................................................................................88
3.11.1 Primary Data Collection Method.................................................................................89
3.11.2 Rationale for Choosing the Primary Data Collection Methods...................................90
3.11.3 Primary Data: Questionnaire Survey Method.............................................................91
3.11.3.1 Rationale for Using Questionnaire Survey Method in this Research Study......91
3.11.5 Limitations of Survey Method as Primary Data Collection Method...........................92
3.12 Secondary Data Collection Methods..................................................................................93
3.12.1 Rationale for Selecting the Secondary Data Collection Methods .......................93
3.12.2 Secondary Data: Library Research Method.................................................................94
3.12.2.1 Rationale for Using Library Research Method in This Research......................94
3.12.4 Limitation of Literature Review as Secondary Data Collection Method....................95
3.13 Phases of Research under Data Collection of this Research Study....................................95
3.13.1 Description of Phase 1.................................................................................................95
3.13.2 Data Collection in Phase 1: Library Research Method...............................................96
3.13.3 Limitation of Phase 1...................................................................................................97
3.13.4 Description of Phase 2.................................................................................................99
3.13.5 Data Collection in Phase 2: Questionnaire Survey Method........................................99
3.13.5.1 Questionnaire Design for Survey.....................................................................100
3.14 Sample Size and Sample Technique................................................................................101
3.14.1 Rationale for Using Random Sampling Method.......................................................102

3.15 Pilot Study........................................................................................................................103
3.16 Data Analysis Approach......................................................................................................105
3.17 Rationale for Using Graphical Presentation Method.......................................................107
3.18 Authenticity, Bias, Validity and Reliability of the Research Study.................................110
3.19 Research Limitations........................................................................................................113
3.20 Summary..........................................................................................................................116
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS .............................................................................................125
5 References ................................................................................................................................136

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1 Introduction
Overview and structure
Introducing the thesis, this chapter will follow multiple phases. It starts by introducing an
overview of Arab region and information security importance, the nature of Arab trust and
culture, and the mismatch between western IT and local Arab IT which covers the whole
dissertation problem, and research objectives. Moreover, a short section that reflects on research
paradigms clarifying that this is an information system research paper. In addition, a personal,
non-academic section to explain the researcher’s background, motivation, and personal
determination. Finally, a short summary of what has been presented before proceeding to the
literature review chapter.
1.1Overview
1.1.1Overview of Arab Region
Arab is considered as a cultural term, and the term is used for the
people who speak Arabic and is their first language. It is found that Arab
people can be united on the basis of their cultural aspects and their history.
Within the Arab culture Muslims, Jewish and Christians can be found.
Therefore, it can be said that the people living in the Arab region are not
Muslims but also Jewish and Christians (ADC, 2009). The Arab region is also
considered as the Arab world, which consists of total 22 countries in the

Middle East region and North Africa. Some of the countries, which are
included in the Arab region, are Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (ADC, 2009). It is found that Arab
countries have rich diversity in regard to the ethnic believes, linguistic
choices and also religious beliefs. Further, it has been observed that in the
Arab region, the link between Islam and Arab can be seen as the deep roots
of the history. The people living in the Arab region are found to speak Arabic,
and it is considered as the predominant religious language in the region. In
terms of life in the Arab region, it is found that in urban areas of Arab region
people have choices in occupations and freedom for women. Therefore, it
can be said that in the urban areas of an Arab region traditional pattern of
the people are changing. As compared to the urban life in the Arab region, it
is found that in rural areas, the cultural roots are found deep in the history
(ADC, 2009).
It is increasingly important to ensure high level of information security for
both individuals and organisations (Parson et al., 2014). IT security
guidelines are becoming highly advanced and user friendly. However,
employees are less likely to adhere to these guidelines which poses a serious
security risk and that make us wondering: are these guidelines adequate
enough for effective awareness? So a need for better understanding of what
could influence employees to comply and pay more attention to these
security guidelines. It is the main purpose of this research to identify the
factors that influence human behaviours in particularly the Arab region
towards information security such as the nature of Arab culture, trust, and
the mismatch with western IT Technology.
However, to extend more depth on this research, this thesis will cover the
nature of Arab trust and culture, and will conduct a statistical analysis after
collecting completed questionnaires from participants, to determine the

mismatch between western culture and Arab local culture and partially
personality factors and their impact on IS awareness training.
Despite the understanding of information security issues found in
organisations, researchers have explored the understanding of human
attitude and behaviour towards information security but there seems a lack
of research on how the understanding of the local culture may help us to
differentiate or isolate the issue that has been found within Arab culture such
as trust, information sharing culture, and resistance to western IT
Technology.
However, the focus of this research is narrow; it is only interested in the
nature of Arab trust towards information security, the local culture, the
mismatch between Arab local system and western based system, the
transfer of western technology to the Arab region challenges.
2 Information security and human behaviours
According to Siponen, Seppo, and Adam (Siponen, 2007), in the last few years, the importance
of information systems security has increased as witnessed by the number of incidents that
organisations have encountered. Employees rarely comply with the security policies, procedures,
and techniques which places the organisation assets in danger.
According to Inaugural International Conference on Human Aspects of Information Security and
Assurance, It is been acknowledged that the requirements of security can’t be addressed by
technical means only, and the important aspects of protection comes down to four dimensions,
attitude, awareness, behaviour, and capabilities of people involved, therefore employees or users
should be seen as a vital elements to build a successful security strategy (HAISA, 2007). Authors
such as Schneier, Pincus, and Heiser, stated that, in order to achieve an acceptable level of
information security within an organisation, human factor aspects should be considered as a
critical element rather than just focusing on software and hardware vulnerabilities (Schneier et
al., 2004).

Stanton, Stam, and Mastrangelo (Stanton et al., 2004) stated that information security research
focuses on algorithms, methods, and standards that support the three basic functions of
information security such as confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA). Concepts, theories,
and research that are relevant to human behaviour have been receiving increasing attention by
researchers on how human behaviour affects information security.
Binden, Jormae, Zain, and Ibrahim ( Binden et.al., 2014) suggest that protection of data and
critical information such as trade secrets and proprietary information is among the aspects that
have gained much emphasis recently due to the rising cases of infringement and theft of
confidential information from individuals and enterprises. Many of these infringements can be
attributed to human error.
According to NIST and Computer Security Act of 1987, the information integrity,
confidentiality, and availability of Federal agencies and organisations cannot be protected in
today’s highly networked systems environment without effective training and having users
involved understands the roles and responsibilities of their works and adequately train them to
perform them in more secure way (NIST, 1998).
In November 1989, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) working with
U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) have developed and issued guidelines for Federal
computer security training. However, in January 1992, the Office of Personnel Management
(OPM) has issued a revision of federal personnel regulations related to the guidelines which were
voluntary and made them mandatory. As indicated by NIST, OPM regulations required training
for current employees, new hires within 60 days, a significant change in the IT security
environment or procedures of the agency, change positions of employees which deal with
sensitive information, and periodically as a refresher training for employees who handle sensitive
information.

Non-academic contribution
Overview of Wasta and Islam
This is a separate section I thought to include as I believe it is related to Arab culture in the real
life nowadays. As an observation, I have found that the Wasta is exists within Arab countries for
many years and as a results of that, the Wasta within Arabs becomes a key to build a
relationship at different level within their culture therefore the trust that this research is
addressing becomes vital to maintain their relationships. Much like China, the basic rule of
business in the Arab World is to establish a relationship first, build connections, and only
actually come to the heart of the intended business at a later meeting. There is a master
assumption that a network or web of connections already exists and the issues concern if, and
how, it may be accessed. In traditional Western models the emphasis is on the immediate
transaction itself. Thus in the Arab milieu much that subsequently transpires appears to be in
direct contrast to Western practice in which focus is placed on ‘getting the deal done’ and a
friendship- may only develop later as a separate function to the business transaction. Just as in
China, the Arab process of building relationships prior to transacting business is very time
consuming.
However, once a relationship has been established verbal contracts are absolute and an
individual’s word is his/her bond and failure to meet verbally agreed obligations will certainly
lead to a termination of a business relationship. Three factors are core to business and society in
the Arab World. Firstly, the global philosophy of Islam is based on practice rather than dogma.
Secondly, there is an expectation that good practice of Islam is what all Muslims do, Thirdly,
Muslim societies are wholly networked and all business activities revolve around these networks.
Like its Chinese counterpart guanxi, Wasta thus also involves a social network of interpersonal
connections rooted in family and kinship ties. Involving the exercise of power, influence and
information-sharing through social and politico-business networks, Wasta is intrinsic to the
operation of many valuable social processes, central to the transmission of knowledge, and the
creation of opportunity. Just as guanxi has a positive connotation of networking and negative
connotation of corruption, so too does Wasta and it is possible to refer to good Wasta and

negative Wasta. Though Sawalha (2002) suggests that Wasta, as the use of connections for
personal gains, commonly stands for nepotism, cronyism, and corruption in general, and, is a
deeply rooted practice among all segments of society and in all sectors, this was not the original
meaning of Wasta. Wasta is literally defined as Arabic for connections or pull and may be
utilised as a form of intercession or mediation. Traditionally, the head of the family in Arab
nations performed Wasta services by obtaining for the supplicant what is assumed to be
otherwise unattainable. In recent years, Wasta has come to mean the seeking of benefits from
government. Though Wasta pervades the culture of all Arab countries and is a force in all
significant decision making, it is not usually mentioned by most writers nor is it openly discussed
by Arabs themselves (Sawalha, 2002). By illustration one could point to a typical response to the
question of Wasta continued influence. A Western business person may ask an Arab colleague
whether Wasta is still influential in business transactions s/he will very probably at first say no
but then if the Westerner asks if Wasta will become irrelevant in Arab business and society, the
response will be an emphatic reply that Wasta is central to all Arab life. If the questioner
proceeds to express condemnation or dismay at the existence of Wasta in a specific business
situation they may be listened to courteously but discreetly humoured as possibly naïve or
inexperienced. But too much acceptance and understanding may also be taken as an adverse sign.
In principle Arabs are permitted to criticise Wasta in ways that from a Westerner would be
considered unacceptable. Thus HRD managers are advised to train their international managers
from a non-Arab background in the need to learning how to manage what may not be directly
acknowledged or discussed.
Cunningham and Sarayrah (1993) argue that Wasta has changed over time and its main goal has
shifted from conflict resolution as a means of survival to intercession, and the term denotes the
person who mediates/intercedes as well as the act of mediation/intercession (Cunningham and
Sarayrah, 1994). Intermediary Wasta endeavours to resolve inter-personal or inter-group conflict
and a jaha (wajaha', mediation group of notable emissaries sent by the perpetrator's family to the
victim's family) acts to inhibit revenge being taken following an incident involving personal
injury (Cunningham and Sarayrah, 1994). Wasta as mediation binds families and communities
for peace and well-being in a hostile environment and this form of Wasta benefits society as a
whole, as well as the parties involved (Cunningham and Sarayrah,1994). Intercessory Wasta
involves a protagonist intervening on behalf of a client to obtain an advantage for the client, such

as a job, a government document, a tax reduction, or admission to a prestigious university. In
instances where there are many seekers of the same benefit, only aspirants with the strongest
Wasta are successful (Cunningham and Sarayrah, 1994). In Western business it is common to
negotiate with only one organisation at a time after initial quotes have been received. In the Arab
World negotiations will be conducted with several businesses simultaneously and the
organisation to win the deal will usually be the one with the strongest Wasta connections. The
lesson for international managers is to avoid placing all their efforts on the product/service
delivery but rather to invest their time and resources in the requisite business acumen of
cultivating strong connections. In this context there is no substitute for achieving a good
reputation for honest dealing. Western managers may come unstuck if they presume to act as
they believe local managers from an Arab background might behave. Indeed, any inference
relating to such topics as “corruption” may be very bitterly resented.
3.1Trust
It has been argued that attempts to regulate traditional forms of networking, particularly the Arab
Wasta, by legal or juridical constraint usually fail because they are intrinsically tied to trust and
social structures and family connections (Weir, 2003a). For the Chinese, emotional trust is more
important than cognitive trust, and is based on sentiment-based ties between individuals which
may also be extended to others through the relationship network, guanxiwang (Gao and Ting-
Toomey, 1998). Xinyong (trust) literally means the use or usefulness of trust but also refers to
the integrity, credibility, trustworthiness, or the reputation and character of a person (Kiong and
Kee,1998). Moreover, when an individual helps one’s guanxi, that individual’s reputation is
raised and trust and mianzi (face) won from others. Trust is also associated with the importance
of one’s word over legal documents. When trust has been established, one’s word can be taken in
business transactions – to go against one’s given word is to lose face and trust and ultimately
one’s good guanxi. Reciprocity is also linked to guanxi and trust with an unwritten rule that one
must Payback + 1 when a favour has been provided. Relations of trust between business partners
are integral to successful business transactions in the Arab World also. While the Western world
relies on formal agreements and legally-prepared and signed contracts, once a trustful

relationship has been established in the Arab World business partners need only give their word
of honour in business dealings (Demirbag, Mirza and Weir, 2003). Consultation or Shura is
central to business relationship in the Arab World (Siddiqui, 1997) and decisions carry great
importance as they are deemed to have been made on behalf of Allah. Though trust is endemic to
business and social relationships, participation is a key and consultation means the right to
appeal decisions (Espisito, 1988). While trust in China hails from Confucian philosophy, trust in
the Arab World is rooted in Islam and faith in God. It should be noted, though, that while the
word of an Arab is his/her bond, the phrase ‘Insha’Allah’, literally “if God wills it” can be a
simple statement or a form of words covering the strong possibility of inaction or even a negative
outcome to apparently agreed courses of action. Weir (2003a) argues that, by its very nature, this
is an indefeasible expression, for all outcomes represent the will of God and what eventually
happens, or does not happen, is equally an expression of Divine will. The successful
international manager is one who recognises this pre-existing state and who works slowly but
surely towards gaining the trust of his/her Chinese and Arab counterparts.
3.2 The importance of family
Family is of central importance in both China and the Arab World. In China, the notion of family
encompasses the extended family and the wider community. Not only do people feel a sense of
obligation to their family, but also an obligation to save and maintain face for their family and
extended networks. Reciprocal obligations are not limited to family and kinship only but also to
non-kin ties in which people are expected to help each other as if they are fulfilling obligations to
their family members (Bian and Ang, 1997). This reciprocity is integrally tied to guanxi and
further extended to the repayment of business and social deeds, and those that fail to deliver, may
be “labelled as bugou pengyou, or ‘not enough of a friend’” (Seligman, 1999, p. 36). Family
forms the basis of business organisation even more so in the Arab World than China. Moreover,
the family in the Arab World is the primary Wasta channel (Muna, 1980). The formalities of
social, family and political life are strictly preserved, even in managerial settings. Just as Chinese
business culture revolves around banqueting, it is impossible to undertake any kind of meeting in
an Arab organisation without the ubiquitous coffee or tea rituals associated with the ‘diwan’. The
traditional tribal Wasta, the shaykh, was a man of honour, whose word was his bond and whom
would assume responsibility for his acts (Cunningham and Sarayrah, 1994).

Although originally based upon family loyalty, Wasta relationships have expanded to
encompass the broader community of friends and acquaintances as does guanxi in China. It is
further argued that Wasta -based recruitment and allocation of benefits reinforce family ties,
thereby connecting the individual to the economy and polity. Indeed, Cunningham and Sarayrah
(1994) and Weir (2003a) proffer that the importance of family connections is so great that how
people are admitted to university or hired for a job is less important than their performance in
class or on the job. Moreover, where a close family member appears at the office of even quite a
senior manager, it is regarded as improper for the demands of organisational hierarchy to take
precedence over the obligations due to family (Sulieman 1984). International managers can
never assume the position of a close family member but they are advised to work with Chinese
and Arab middle managers and business partners as intermediaries to form a more trustful bond
with their employees and business associates. In so doing they can work towards a situation of
insider status and knowledge sharing which will be of long-term profit to their organisation
Favours. In both China and the Arab World the notion of favours is tied to guanxi and Wasta
respectively. Yet, while the Chinese differentiate between favours that support guanxi
relationships and bribery and corruption, in the Arab World the idea of favours is generally
regarded as having negative connotations, despite being widely practiced. In China, the value of
guanxi depends upon the element of ganqing or affection that is tied to renqing (favours) (Kiong
and Kee, 1998). The word renqing indicates individual emotional responses of daily life and
translates into a resource allocated to another person as a gift and connoting a set of social norms
to guide an individual to get along well with other people (Wong and Tam, 2000). It has also
been used to refer to bribes. However, as the use of bribery is universally condemned in China,
particularly now that there has been the introduction of laws specifically dealing with corruption,
the Chinese themselves make a sharp distinction between bribes and favours. While giving cash
is usually viewed as buying someone’s services and hence is condemned, gift giving may
constitute bribery or can be simply guanxi cultivation, depending on the intention and who is
giving. Yet, Guthrie (1998) maintains that corrupt practices are increasingly considered backdoor
as actors play more and more attention to the laws, rules and regulations that are part of the
emerging rationale-legal system. Managers of large private organisations, he argues, increasingly
view guanxi practice as unnecessary and dangerous in light of new controls and official
procedures (Guthrie, 1998). Therefore the extent to which international managers may be

required to exercise favours is declining and may only necessitate the type of business
entertaining that occurs in Western business. Arabs are increasingly concerned that favours are
being interpreted as an attempt to change the behaviour of the recipient. In a pioneering opinion
poll carried out by the Arab Archives Institute in 2001, 87 per cent of respondents stressed the
need to eradicate Wasta, viewing it as divisive and symptomatic of corruption, even though
more than 90 per cent also responded that they believed they would be using it at some point in
their lives (Sawalha, 2002). Weir (2003a) notes, however, that the exchange of gifts in the Arab
World, which often puzzles or offends Western managers, should not necessarily be construed as
an attempt to influence the judgement of a recipient but may be interpreted merely as a mark of
respect. Moreover, it is to signify reciprocal acceptance of status and marking the initiation or
honouring of an agreed bond - and to this end Wasta shares similarities with Western business
custom.
4 Literature review
Overview and structure
This critical review is in different distinct parts. The first asks the fundamental question, how
local culture influence attitude towards information security and the transfer of western IT
Technology. Following this, we identify how trust factor as found within Arab region influence
information sharing at different level of trust and causing employees to share confidential
information in the workplace and why do people share confidential information in Arab culture
when it comes to information security? Is trust influenced by culture in this region? The final

section will be covering the mismatch between western system and Arab region culture, a non-
focused area on personality factors, and the summary of the literature.
4.1 Objectivise and orientation
Overall the research aims to present literature relevant to IS security in the Arab region.
The western Information system at some point failed to be accepted by Arab culture
due to some barriers which will be presented in this research. However, it did work for
westernized people who have been educated in these developed countries but the
majority of those who are living in the Arab culture didn’t specially aged people and
some young people who live in villages which lead to this investigation. The objectives
of this research are to identify the factors that impact the accepting of western IT
Technology, attempt to isolate or propose a solution, and to reduce the mismatch
through possibly customised training. The research will look at these factors as
following:
4.1.1Culture
This section contrasts the cultures that predominate in the Arabian Gulf with those that
predominate in the west. As the research focus in the adoption of IS security in the Arab
region this is also the main focus of the review. Accordingly, this section attempt to
review all scholarly literature on the subject of Arabian culture as it is manifest in the
gulf. For contextualisation purposes, this section also review some literature on
Western cultures is so far as they contrast with those in the Arab region; however this is
not the primary focus of the review.

This comparison purposes in this section also takes a cursory look at western cultures
and provides an overview of western culture in so far as it related. For contrasting
purposes literature related to western culture, in so much as it aligns with Arab cultures
is also reviewed. This section covers the nature of Arab culture in general and will
focuses on the nature of Arab culture specifically as a main focused area which will
then present the first research question and attempt to answer it.
According to Abah (2011), cultural pasts and modernization in the Arab region such as
United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia contribute to the vivid tensions of cultural
present of the Arabs. The Arabs emphasize on their Arabic style of traditional culture
despite the engagement of the nationals with modernized communities. This interesting
significance of tribal agreements remains as valuable features of in the emirate rule
among the locals. The tribe of the Bedouins traditionally lived nomadic lives in the
desert. They traded with livestock as they shifted from one oasis to another for their
livestock. Interestingly, this cultural past can be observed in the present culture among
the Arabs. Though the Bedouin now live in houses, they insist on dwelling in tents in
their gardens. Also, those in Dubai with white collar jobs live in the city. However, they
prefer taking holidays in the deserts while living in tents. The Arabic culture tends to be
pervasive and deeply rooted.
4.1.2 Trust dynamics
To introduce the subject, this section provides an overview of trust as defined within
sociology and psychology. More specifically, papers are then reviewed relevant to trust
as a component of Arab cultures along three themes, namely:
 Trust scale in General

 Trust in close relationship
 Trust in families members
 Trust in leaders
 Trust in people
The intention was to gather all scholarly articles related to these latter areas. The themes
mentioned were not set out beforehand but are those that emerged as major literature
conversation during the review. This section begins with reviewing key documents that
provide a salient over view of trust.
This section covers the trust factor at different level such as trust in relationships, leaders, close
friends, tribe or family members, and general trust. One of the vital cultural factors is trust.
Existing research in this area seems to indicate that members of Arab communities tend to have a
high level of trust based on shared values, so further research is needed to identify the different
trust dynamics levels.
4.1.4 Mismatch with western IT Technology
This section will cover the issues found within the Arab region based on the findings on
culture and trust and will attempt to isolate it or if possible present a logical solutions to
it. Transferring Information Technology (IT) to bring it into practice is difficult for
many countries, and they even fail to transfer it. The major obstacles that are faced
while transferring IT into practices are cultural and social norms of a developing
country. It has been identified that in Arab society the cultural beliefs of the people of

various occupational groups differs on the basis of the construct of the technology in
their daily lives (Hill et al., 1998).
4.1.5 Personality types
This section will cover a contribution to a better understanding of how the Information
security Training can be better customized based on personality factors. However, this
section will not be the focused area of this research but will present hypothesise that
will help to improve the Information security Training Awareness.
5 Introduction
Overview
The proposed plan of this research is to attempt to answer research
questions by examining or identifying the nature of Arab trust comparing to
others. Moving further, this research will extend more on investigating the
role of trust on sharing information as found or observed in Arab culture and
whether this has something to do with certain aspects of the culture and if
so, to what extent does culture affect attitude towards IS. Finally, the
research will seek to identify ways to reduce the gaps between western
based security awareness training and Arab culture.
We must consider the influence of the local culture and how this may impact
the findings of this research. A person having certain attitude who is
expected to behave in a certain way when subjected to a situation may not
exhibit the expected behaviour due to cultural restrictions. For example Arab
people tend to be trusting towards other members of their community which

is in contradiction with IS principles.
One of the vital cultural factors is trust. Existing research in this area seems
to indicate that members of Arab communities tend to have a high level of
trust based on shared values (Putnam andNicotera (2009), so further
research is needed to investigate possible ways to make adjustments to the
level of trust and therefore reduce the mismatch between western ISAT and
the local culture. ISAT should be also customised based on additional aspects
of Arab culture.
According to Lewicki and Bunker, (1996), Rempel, Holmes, and Zanna,
(1985) and Lewis and Weigert, (1985), trust in relationships is developed in
different foundations. They range from empathy in collective calculations,
affective bonds, confidence in one’s counterparts and concern for welfare.
On the other hand, many researchers such as Bulter (1991), Zucker (1986)
andCook and Wall, (1980) attribute the growth of trust to the sharing of
information with confidence of the reliability and competence of the
counterparts.
As per the report presented by UNESCO Science Report, Towards 2030, from
the period 2004 to 2014, the Arab region has faced political instability, but at
the same time, it has been observed that the Arab region has made progress
by putting its efforts in many fields, such as RandD. The expenditure made
by the Arab countries has also helped them in generating revenue (UNESCO,
2016). It is also observed that the participation of women in the Arab region
is found less as compared to men, but at the same time, it is observed that
the participation of women in science and research sector is measurable as
compared to men. It is found that the countries in the Arab region are taking
steps in order to have more women participation in all fields existing in the
region (UNESCO, 2016). In regard to the science and research sector in Arab
region, it is found that the countries are rich in this sector and also in the oil
and gas industry. Therefore, the countries in the Arab region are taking steps

so that they can use their technology and its advancements to develop
improve the oil and as a sector. The countries in the Arab region have
initiated with the help of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Programme (UNESCO, 2016).
5.1 Overview of Personality, Trust and Culture within Arab Region
It can be said that trust is made in the form of relationship between
various individuals which helps in building confidence regarding one’s
counterparts and also their welfare (Abah, 2011). If there are many
uncertainties and instability between the relationships, then it can be said
that trust cannot be developed. It can also be said that it is the need of the
business environments that there are trust and relationship among the
employees working in the organisation and also between the employers and
employees (Abah, 2011). Therefore, it can be said that the environmental
factors are also responsible for building trust and relationship among the
individuals of an organisation or a country. Further, it can be said that
culture of a place is based on the communication level or culture is viewed
as a form of communication. Thus, it is essential that the communication
level of a place is understood by every individual living at that place (Abah,
2011). While communicating with other individuals at a place, it is necessary
that the message is decoded by the individuals properly and the individuals
should also understand the culture and value used while communicating. It
can be said that with the values of a place its cultural values also improves
(HöHmann and Welter, 2005).
In Arab region, it is observed that the cultural presence of the
countries can be seen through modernisation and culture followed by the
people. It is found that the Arab countries have their main focus on the
traditions that are followed in Arabic style by the people over the years even
though the people living in the Arab region are found to be modernised. The

Arabic culture can be seen through the lifestyles of people living in the Arab
region (Abah, 2011). Therefore, it can be said that in the Arab region, the
cultural aspects are deep rooted. Further, it can be said that inequalities
exist between the Arab nations regarding their cultural aspects. It is also
seen that in workplaces, authoritative policies are followed where it can be
said that unequal distribution of power exists between the higher and lower
end of people working in the organisation (Abah, 2011). At the same time, it
is also found that the nations in the Arab region has a high level of trust
among them and they are also willing to share information with each other;
therefore, it can be said that possibility of misunderstandings is less and
people have a positive attitude (Abah, 2011).
In the perspective of Lunt, Horsfall and Hanefeld (2015), it is found that
trust is the most important factor that is required while doing business. On
the basis of trust factor of a company, it has a reputation in the market,
brand recognition and also offline presence. In the Arab countries, trust is
dependent on the relationships between the people or the company. On the
other hand, in the western countries trust can be found on the basis of the
contracts and agreement made between people or the companies (Lunt,
Horsfall and Hanefeld, 2015).
In the views of Chrysostome (2014), trust is considered as one of the
important aspects in the Arab region as it helps in developing relationship
marketing among the Arab countries. Trust and commitment show the
shared value between the organisations in the Arab region. Further, it is
found that trust is deep rooted in the Arab region and is reflected through
the businesses running across the countries (Chrysostome, 2014). It is
observed that most of the businesses running in the Arab world are run by
the family members. Trust is the foundation of the Arab families, and it is
found that the families consider that businesses should run on the basis of
trust, which should not be broken. Therefore, it can be said that for running
an effective business in the Arab region, the organisation must have trust

attribute in the market, which also defines their reputation (Chrysostome,
2014).
According to Hessle (2016), the main reason behind the trust in the
organisations in the Arab region is that they want to build a society based on
trust and also want to build a hard working society. It is found that the
organisations which are based on trust and the employees are hardworking,
then the organisation results in improved productivity and increased
profitability (Hessle, 2016).
As per El-Shibiny (2005), it is found that the Arab countries find trust as
an important aspect to develop relationships between two people or
companies. In the Arab region, people have shared values and also find to
have linguistic similarities; therefore, it can be said that shared value and
similarities in the Arab region leads towards trust (El-Shibiny, 2005). Deep
roots of trust and shared value among the people shows that people have
loyalty to them and also the work is done fairly. Shared value culture and
trust among the people have led towards removing any kind of barriers
among the people (El-Shibiny, 2005).
5.2 Cultural similarity
Trust is based in similarity of language, traditions and religious backgrounds. In every
form of interpersonal relationship, similarity in these backgrounds can be associated with
particular attributes for a given outcome. Mainly, trust facilitates communication and increased
confidence in security of confidential information. As cited in PutnamandNicotera (2009), Hall
(1959) noted that “Culture is communication and communication is culture” (p. 167). In this
respect, communication can be considered as an additional antecedent of trust. Through trust in
communication, individuals can engage in communication to resolve disputes, align expectations
and perceptions. Hall (1959) stressed on the value of communication in culture. He further noted
that communication creates a mechanism for conveying and decoding information that pertain to
the lives of counterparts. Through similarity in language, individuals can create an organized
schema for observing and comprehending the events of the world. For communication to occur

effectively, interaction between partners is necessary. Interaction in communication can be based
on similarity of culture or other aspects that affirm understanding. Also, repeated communication
builds competence in establishing trust. The quality of interaction significantly determines the
level of trust between counterparts. In this respect, face to face interactions may be valued higher
than other forms of interactions. Face to face interactions make memorable and significant
development of environments for sharing confidential information. Face-to-face conversations
between individuals of diverse national cultures contribute to the rise of frequent matters. In
some instances, such matters may be hinders by differences in language. People from different
cultural backgrounds, self-identities, morals and values could significantly hinder
communication. Different cultures allow for different approaches in expression of perceptions,
emotions and other phenomena. These differences significantly contribute to possible problems
and miscommunication. In this respect, individuals that interact without similarity in values may
encounter major difficulties in communication.
In both the European and Arabic nations, shared values and culture play a significant role
in business and social relations. Many aspects of effective relationships involve engaging with
people in the capacity of stakeholders, employees, customers or suppliers. Research into cross
cultural interactions is widely being applied in global and modern practices and techniques of
management. A study into the impact of culture and shared values in management in Arabic
countries by forms the focus of this section. The theoretical insights drawn from the study
involve the fundamental antecedents of trust in business. Also, the study focused on the residents
of the Emirates and their value of trust and culture in relationships. Reviews that were captured
included:
1) Critical examination of shared values and culture
2) Culture and trust in business
3) Antecedents of trust among the Arabs
4) Management practices in Arabic states
Often, conducting studies in the field of cultures and shared values involves overcoming
challenges of accurately defining the meaning of culture. Culture is widely defined in existing
literatures. Also, diverse dimensions and conceptualizations of culture have been introduced.

According to Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond, Hill, andThanasankit, (2004),the complex nature of
culture makes it difficult to define it. Primarily, culture encompasses both intrinsic and extrinsic
values and elements. Often, the elements of culture are defined by basic assumptions, behavior,
norms and values. Many researchers, Neal, Finlay, Catana, andCatana, (2007), Khan and Khan
(2015) and LauringandBjerregaard, (2009) have conducted studies on the shared elements of
culture and values.
According to Mooradian, RenzlandMatzler (2006), one hundred and sixty definitions of
culture were introduced by Kroeber and Kluckhohn in 1952. The researchers further note that
these definitions multiplied to four hundred by the year 1994. Culture occurs as an essential
aspect in social and behavioral sciences. As a result, the definitions and conceptualizations of
culture increase over time. In sociology, the concept of culture is defined as a compound set of
patterns of behavior and characteristics shared by the participant members of the society.In
addition, the definition includes the shared feelings, beliefs and attitudes of members of the
culture. The article review by Kendall, Woodward, andSkrbiš, (2009) based on the studies of
Braithwaite and Thompson (2000), Pool (1973), Putnam andNicotera (2009), aimed at analyzing
the numerous instruments used in their quantitative research in measuring culture. In conclusion,
culture involved the following primary elements.
1. It is multi-level and complex
2. It is shared by individuals within the same society or group
3. It is stable
4. Is established over a long period of time
A study on the Arabic culture and values indicated that these four elements are included.
However, these elements of culture among the Arab apply differently to men and women.
Further elements concerning the Arabic culture in disclosing confidential information are based
on the Hofstede’s research.

5.3 Research in Culture by Hofstede
In his quantitative research conducted at IBM to measure culture and its consequences, Hofstede
used diverse sources of data to make his findings on culture at within working areas. Hofstede
defines culture as mental software that individuals employ when needed to form a particular
belief. He further noted that culture enforces a defined pattern of thought. This pattern can be
reflected in the manner of interaction or behavior of a particular people. In his original study,
Hofstede conducted his research among employee of IBM across more than fifty countries in the
world. The study led to many findings that required diverse strategies and ways of approach.
These findings include:
1. Inequality in relationship of the society with authority
2. Defined association of a group and an individual
3. Division of social institutions by their level of femininity or masculinity
4. Approaches of managing expression of emotions, uncertainty and control of aggression
5. Short term versus long term positioning of life
Hofstede further grouped the findings by five dimensions with factors that can be associated with
arbitrary culture in the world.
1. Power distance
Hofstede defined powered distance as the degree to which power is accepted among the
members of the society. Also it defines the unequal or equal distribution of power in the
society
2. Collectivism versus individualism
Collective societies include communities that encourage cohesion and strong social links.
On the other hand, individualistic cultures tend to be less cohesive. Here, individuals of
the society do not engage in the lives of other individuals
3. Femininity versus masculinity
Feminine cultures tend to exhibit equal distribution of gender roles among both women
and men. The overlapping of the roles promotes loyalty within the community.
Conversely, masculinity refers to communities that tend to be highly competitive. Also,
gender roles among men and women tend to distinctly elaborated.
4. Uncertainty avoidance

Hofstede associated different cultures with different levels of tendency to embrace
situations of unknown outcomes. High uncertainty avoidance results in rules that enable
members to avoid such situations.
5. Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation
This factor elaborates on dynamism in orientation towards life. Long term orientation
involves sense of shame, high value of relationships and status, thrift, persistence and the
opposite pole. On the other hand, short term orientation involves saving face,
reciprocating gifts and favors, high regard for tradition and customs and personal
steadiness.
These factors and terminologies were derived from social sciences. According to
Hofstede, these factors can be distinctively applied in distinguishing national cultures. Therefore,
this paper draws distinction between the UK and the Arabic nations.
Comparison to the United States ,Great Britain and Arab countries
Power
Distanc
e
Uncerta
inty
avoidan
ce
Individ
ualism
/
collectiv
ism
Masculi
nity/
Feminin
ity
Long-/
Shortter
m
Orientat
ion
Country Inde
x
Rank Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank
Great
Britain
35 42–
44
35 47–
48
89 3 66 9–10 25 28–
29
United
States
40 38 46 43 91 1 62 15 29 27
Arab
Countrie
s
80 7 68 27 38 26–27 53 23

Table 1 clearly compares the variation in scores of the Great Britain, United States and the Arab
nations.
(SOURCE:Putnam andNicotera (2009))
The comparison indicates that Arab nations have bigger scores of 80 in power distance as
compared to 40 and 35 for the United States and the Great Britain respectively. Moreover, the
Arabic nations ranked 7 out of the total 50 nations. In discussion, the high scores in power
distance indicate that the Arabic nations tend to have larger sense of inequalities within their
cultures. The desired or expected authoritarian concepts exist in the workplace. Here, an unequal
hierarchy of status among the lower and higher end of the society persist. Also, due to strong
centralization, the subordinates may be required to never work without the instruction of their
superiors. Also, managers practice utmost benevolence and bureaucratic leadership at the
workplaces. In this respect, the people in authority often receive high status privileges and power
is popularly unequally distributed among the nationals.
5.4 Trust
5.4.1 Trust and Relationships
Various studies conducted previously associate the quality of relationships with
environmental factors such as shared values and culture. According to Corbitt, Peszynski,
Inthanond, Hill, andThanasankit(2004), environmental factors occur as a cultural precursor of
trust. Therefore, uncertainty or instability in the environment generates low levels of trust.
Therefore, environmental benevolence significantly influences quality of relationships through a
complex formula of correlation. The environmental factors referred to in the research encompass
social and economic aspects. Another study by HöHmannand Welter (2005) discusses expertise
in service entrepreneurship. This study relates to that of Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond, Hill,
andThanasankit (2004) although the focus shifts from consumer environments to business

environments. The business environment requires utmost trust and not necessarily a focus on
shared beliefs or culture. The author further argues that the cultural market positioning of a buyer
firm acts indirectly as a precursor of the level of loyalty exhibited to the main supplier. Barry
(2004) conducted a study in 42 states on the antecedents of trust that are driven by culture. The
study included factors such as collectivism and wealth in the nation of the buyer. In conclusion,
the study noted that trust building actively involved social behaviors. Moreover, the conclusion
explained that these dominant social behaviors were significantly influenced by culture.
Another study by Theron et al. (2008 as cited in Agourram, 2009 p. 34 - 48) conducted a study in
the financial services industry in South Africa. It involved relationship managers and clients of
the industry. The study concluded that commitment to a relationship involves four valuable
antecedents. They include:
1. Commitment in relationships is driven by trust
2. Sustenance of commitments in a relationship requires effective communication.
Communication reduces perceived risk and uncertainty in sharing information.
3. Similarity in levels of relationship commitment and shared values play a significant role.
These aspects contribute to the alignment of business values. Furthermore, the author
cited the need to consider cultural differences of clients. Here, the study referred to
uniqueness of financial services that Muslims require.
4. Since clients of financial services value the range and width of services by financial
service providers, comparison and attractiveness of alternatives should be noted.
Theron et al. (2008) associated religion with shared beliefs and culture. The author made
this conclusion upon considering the uniqueness of financial services required by Muslims.
However, (Agourram, 2009) noted that studies on the impact of shared culture and values tend to
incorporate the aspect of religion ultimately. The author notes that further research based on the
same valuable could be conducted in the Arab/Muslim nations. Another study was conducted by
Gefen, Rose, Warkentin, andPavlou, (2008) on internet communication between exporters from
United States and their distributors. The study concluded that a positive relationship existed in
internet communication and cultural distance. This means that the greater the cultural distance
the higher the frequency of business letters, facsimile, email and telephone communication. In
conclusion, internet communication does not abbreviate the cultural differences. This study
based its variables on those identified by Hall (1983). According to Gefen, Rose, Warkentin,

andPavlou, (2008), culture can be viewed as a form of communication. In addition,
communication needs to be decoded appropriately so as to derive the intended understanding.
During the process of decoding, individuals from different cultures may derive a different
understanding form the same message in consistence with their cultures and value. In this aspect,
minimized convergence of values indicates increased “cultural distance”. According to Hall, this
instance can be referred to as LC (low context) or HC (high context) dichotomy. In LC (low
context) dichotomy communication, the message conveyed holds adequate details and
information for the sender and receiver to agree. The message is said to be factual and specific.
In HC (high context) dichotomy communication, the message conveyed tends to be less detailed
and less explicit. Gefen, Rose, Warkentin, andPavlou, (2008), argue that cultural contexts in LC
(low context) or HC (high context) dichotomy bear a significant influence on the types and
amount of messages that would be needed to ensure effectiveness in communication. The study
found increased frequency in communication between LC (low context) or HC (high context)
distributors and exporters. Primarily, limited study on shared beliefs and values and culture as
antecedents of trust have been conducted. Often, studies with similar variables tend to
concentrate on organizational culture and expertise in the service environment. The authors
recommend that other studies should be conducted with an emphasis on interaction of culture,
shared values and communication.
5.4.2 Arab cultural antecedents of trust
According to Abah (2011), cultural pasts and modernization in the United Arab Emirates
contribute to the vivid tensions of cultural present of the Arabs. The Arabs emphasize on their
Arabic style of traditional culture despite the engagement of the nationals with modernized
communities. This interesting significance of tribal agreements remains as valuable features of in
the emirate rule among the locals. The tribe of the Bedouins traditionally lived nomadic lives in
the desert. They traded with livestock as they shifted from one oasis to another for their
livestock. Interestingly, this cultural past can be observed in the present culture among the Arabs.
Though the Bedouin now live in houses, they insist on dwelling in tents in their gardens. Also,

those in Dubai with white collar jobs live in the city. However, they prefer taking holidays in the
deserts while living in tents. The Arabic culture tends to be pervasive and deeply rooted.
A study by Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond, Hill, andThanasankit (2004) aimed at finding
solutions for challenges encountered by young Arabs in their financial workstations. The high
rates of attrition among banking Arabs contributed to the study. The authors argue that other than
current focus on economic values, banks needed to realign their training and education towards
values of Arabic cultures. Mainly, the economic value involved planning, economic mentality,
productivity, profitability and annual income. Contrastingly, students highly valued religion,
intellect, politics, beauty, social value and economic values in that order. The study observed that
the lack of alignment in priorities of young Arabs and that of the banks led to insecurity and
anxiety. As a result, the Arabs resorted to withdrawal in emotional and physical contexts. The
study mainly focused on the variations of values and culture among Arabs and non-Arabs and
the existing tension the individual Arabs and the financial institutions.
According to Schuster and Copeland, (1996 as cited in Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond,
Hill, andThanasankit (2004), Arabs tend to have more information about each other as compared
to Westerners. Schuster and Copeland (1996) , noted that culture of the Arabs allows for
networking extensively through socializing. The Arabs endeavor to make new and significant
connections in their daily lives. According to the study by Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond, Hill,
andThanasankit (2004), the Arabic society tends to be tribal. The society highly values family
and loyalty. Among the Arabs, decision making can be influenced by social position, family
links, instincts and intuition and personal relations. In this respect, the Arabic culture dictates
that established relationships should not be broken. These concerns have extended to
management and business operations among the Arabs. For instance, in the banking transactions,
Arabs tend to stick with their initial banker rather than find a replacement. The study notes that
the Islamic tradition influences the tribal values of Arabs. The author’s further state that
literature on Arabic cultures coupled with observation resulted to the conclusion that the Arabic
society tends to be closed. It is believed that Islam can be considered as a comprehensive
lifestyle. In order to understand the business transactions in the Arab nations, one would need to
understand religion. Primarily, Arabs tend to be slow towards engaging with strangers. On the
other hand, well-grounded trust could be applied as a highly valued mechanism towards reducing

uncertainty. High levels of uncertainty avoidance exist among the Arabic culture. This aspect is
replicated in preference to follow rules and stable business enterprises. The Arabic culture
enforces that intrinsic uncertainties of life should be explained and minimized highly. Such
cultures therefore exhibit high significance on information security. In this culture, change
occurs as a threatening initiative. Therefore, Arabs tend to concentrate on relationships that
simplify predictability and interpretations of situations. Here, uncertainty avoidance defines the
perception of individuals towards unknown and uncertain outcomes. It cannot be minimized by
calculable avoidance of risk. Primarily, Arabs tend to give serious considerations when dealing
with fellow Arabs. The authors associate the Arabs with resilience in in-group preferences,
loyalty and collectivist cultures. These aspects come into play when dealing with services,
people or products. Conversely, they may be relaxed towards developing relationship with
potential counterparts from other cultures.
5.4.3 The Universal Approach towards Trust
Many studies on trust in communication exist. Initial studies were conducted among the
Greeks. Alternatively, recent studies tend to be multi-disciplinary spanning from marketing,
psychology, information security and sociology. Strategic studies of trust in marketing and
organizational behavior include Neal, Finlay, Catana, andCatana (2007), Khan and Khan (2015)
and LauringandBjerregaard, (2009). Khan and Khan (2015) focused on organizational trust while
as Neal, Finlay, Catana, andCatana (2007) and LauringandBjerregaard (2009) focused on trust in
social relationships. Trust is a prerequisite for building commercial and interpersonal
relationships. As cited in Catana, andCatana (2007), Lewicki and Bunker (1995), Ganesan
(1994), Ganesan and Hess (1997) and Baier (1986) , trust in relationships with a focus in social
psychology, sociology, economics, management and marketing and philosophy in that order. The
diverse aspects of trust in relationships further receive attention from disciplines of biology,
anthropology, finance, medicine and economics. These multi-disciplinary perspectives on trust
result in diverse outcomes on the same.

5.4.4 Openness to Communication
In the business field, communication can be classified as formal and informal. Also,
through communication, meaningful information can be conveyed on a timely basis. In this
respect, communication breeds trust. However, the aspects of openness and information sharing
constitute the antecedents of trust in communication. According to HöHmannand Welter (2005),
the multi-dimensional structure of communication constitutes willingness to communicate,
quality of communication and quality of feedback. Among the three, willingness to communicate
helps in developing trust. Therefore, openness occurs as an antecedent feature of trust.
Fundamentally, openness to sharing information can be regarded as a sentimental attribute of the
mind. Other studies that concluded that communication developed trust include Mukherjee and
Nath (2003) and Anderson and Narus (1989) as cited in HöHmannand Welter (2005). In
Mukherjee and Nath (2003), aspects of communication directly and positively impacted on the
relationship between a retailer and supplier in the tyre business. Moreover, the study noted that
communication directly relates with trust and sharing information. Another study;
LauringandBjerregaard (2009),argues that communication associateswith the interlinked nature
of industrial communication.Various studies like Chelune (1979),have been conducted towards
understanding the significance of openness in communication( Anderson, Baxter andCissna
2004, p.54).
5.4.5 Relationship on Sharing Information
Karahanna, EvaristoandSrite (2006) focused on the significance of frequency in open
communication. In addition, according to Gefen, Rose, Warkentin, andPavlou (2008), many
aspects of communication and relationships arise in the field of business in high technology. The
authors argued that trust based on cognition and propensity did not outweigh affection based
trust. In this respect, openness in communication intensifies success and ultimately enforces the
growth of affection based trust. Trust derived from affection entails a capacity for understanding,
listening, openness, concern and care. In addition, the aspect of trust strongly breeds out of
positive emotional trust. It is based on undoubted liking towards the trustee. Emotional trust
tends to be open, receptive and loyal to its counterpart. Through emotional trust, individuals can
communicate confidential information between themselves. Through shared understanding in

communication, trust can be developed. It can also lead to establishing solid foundation in non-
opportunistic behaviors. In essence, communication can be effectively developed through, face
to face, clear, culturally sensitive, open, honest and timely communication. According to
Palaiologou (2007),trust in relationships can only be developed in interpersonal communication.
Also,Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond, Hill andThanasankit (2004), concluded that face to face
interaction is vital in the initial stage of developing relationships based on effective
communication. In addition, Mooradian, RenzlandMatzler (2006),noted that partners in a
business setting needed high levels of trust. In this study, openness in communications is viewed
as an aspect that builds trust. Again, the study by Theron et al. (2008) is featured in this section
as it studies on clients and their managers in South Africa. The study concluded that reduction of
uncertainty and risk depended on effectiveness of communication between the two parties. In the
financial services industry, effective communication involved openness with adequate
information. In the study, respondent clients preferred that business values of providers aligned
with their own values. The study further concluded that fundamental antecedents of trust involve
shared values and similarity in cultures.
Abrams, Cross, Lesser and Levin (N.D.) studied the cross cultural industrial market
between the United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia. The study concluded that both countries highly
valued communication as a valuable aspect of developing dynamic relationships. The Saudis
emphasized on the sentimental elements of the dynamic relationship. Contrastingly, the British
emphasized on calculative and instrumental elements of dynamic relationship. In conclusion, the
study found that universally, openness in communication based on affection is likely to occur
between partners that share similar values. The similarity in values was considered as emotional
and effective antecedents of trust in communication.
5.4.6 Variables of Shared Culture, Environment and Values in Communication
Shared values
In the normal human interactions, high levels of trust significantly derive from the practice of
shared values. According to a research byPutnam andNicotera (2009), the findings indicated that
shared values constitute the major components in building unconditional trust among diverse

experiences of individuals. Shared values fundamentally and inherently build the standard of
loyalty that is highly sustained among individuals in order to boost fairness and helpfulness.
Individuals that share a common value build their trust based on the particular single similarity.
In addition, the study noted that individuals tend to hold a perception that individuals that share
their significant value can be called upon for cooperation or certain obligations. The study cited
that (Tschannen-Moran, 2004) noted that individuals that comprehend each other’s
communication or expertise have higher likelihoods of developing closer bonds and mentality.
Another study by Ganesan and Hess (1997) argues that at a personal level, individuals with
similar experiences individuals tend to be highly likely to build trust. The similarity in
experiences and trust can be attributed that the subsequent intensification of comfort levels and
reduction of interpersonal barriers. In a study in the Emirati clients of a banking institution, the
study indicated that the similarity between bankers and clients significantly initiated empathetic
feelings. Additionally, this outcome indicates the significant role of shared values in building
trustworthy relationships. The study further cited that the study by Woodside and Davenport
(1974) made similar conclusions. Here, the relationships managers that held similar values with
their colleagues successfully gained more influence in changing opinions and attitudes of other
people. With reference to Ganesan and Hess (1997), the study noted that shared values could be
viewed as a multidimensional concept. This concept symbolized the degree to which a client and
banker share similar values in privacy, ethics and security of information. The study also
confirms that trust in relationships with clients could be viewed as an antecedent of trust. Such
trusts help in building and nurturing long term bonds in the associative relationships. In order to
have a relationship based on trust; bankers were required to exhibit a culture of ethics, privacy
and security of information to their clients. In the Arab nations, obligations, responsibilities and
roles are distinctly outlined. The shared understanding of expectations, norms, goals,
expectations and values promote the establishment and sustenance of strong trust based
relationships. For this reason, shared values comprise similarity of culture and reproduction of
behavior within similar cultures.

5.4.7 Style of Management in the Arab world
The study on culture by Hofstede unveils the antecedents of trust that form the basis of the
management style that is likely to be practiced. In the Arab world, little study has been
conducted concerning the management styles that are widely practiced. The worth of Arab nation
management styles therefore can never be accurately defined. It is widely perceived that these
nations practice strict forms of management as compared to countries in the European regions of
the United States of America. However, upon in depth study, the findings are likely to conclude
on the positive or negative aspects of Arab styles of management. Positive outcomes of
management include high levels of trust to share confidential information, willingness to share
knowledge, avoidance of misunderstandings and positive regard for Arabic culture. Fougère and
Moulettes(2006) conducted a study to determine the permanent style of management among the
Emiratis and non-Emiratis based on their similarity of cultures and values. The outcomes of the
study were classified based on the causal factors in shared values and culture and their impacts
on Arab management styles. Primarily, it is likely that the Arab management style exhibits
utmost degrees on social and corporate morality. They also practice openness to trade and
consultations in decision making. Foreigners living the Arab nations encounter diverse
consequencesassociated with diversity in national cultures.Fouler and Roulettes (2006),a critic of
the Hofstede study noted that cultures cannot be compared against each other while using
intellectual frameworks derived from ‘Western’ or modern aspects. Cultural factors significantly
come to play in underpinning the mediums of precursors of trust among the Arab cultures. Such
antecedents significantly determine the forms of relationships that arise.
5.4.8 Trust in Diversity
The paper titled 'E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-first
Century,' by Putnam (2007) concludes that ethnical diversities hinder solidarity in the society.
Moreover, these diversities significantly contribute towards low levels of social trust. The paper
notes that these conclusions were made upon analyzing data collected form the United States.
Lancee and Dronkers (2007) further implemented Putnam’s study in Europe. In his 2007 paper;

'E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-first Century,' Putnam comes to the
conclusion that ethnically diverse societies make social solidarity difficult and simultaneously
decrease social capital, and generalized trust is lower in these heterogeneous societies.
In his study, Putnam proposed three hypotheses using the contact hypothesis, conflict
theory and constricts theory in that order. First hypothesis stated that high frequency of
interaction among communities with diversity in ethnicity increased levels of trust. However,
this hypothesis considered that it would be confirmed only when applied to a group with a larger
population of the minority ethnic group. Second hypothesis noted that limited resources
ultimately results in development of in group solidarity or distrust. Thirdly, ethnic diversity
would lower trust both in in-group and out-group settings. Putnam tested these hypotheses in a
national research guided by the 2001 Social Capital Community Benchmark survey kin America.
The survey involved a sample size of 30,000 respondents collected from 41 communities
involving the Asians, Americans, Whites, Blacks and other. In a previous study, Putnam (1993)
noted that trust contributes significantly towards societal cooperation.
In the Western conceptualization, the construct of trust could be differentiated on the
basis of affection and or cognition. In a study by Chua, Ingram and Morris (2005) that aimed to
determine these two constructs of trust, the researchers noted that managers in America practiced
these two constructs widely. Traditionally, the surveys on professional networks measured the
diverse kinds of relations that the managers employ as they attend to various responsibilities
within the network. Such kinds of relations determine the nature and growth of friendship,
economic assistance, career advice and task advice. According to the study, the findings
indicated a definite overlap of these relations. The study noted that the overlap could be related
to the ease in alteration of interactions as the managers’ aim at maintaining different forms of
trust based relationships. Mainly, trust based on cognition was observed to be more likely to
grow in settings that provided financial assistance or professional advice. On the other hand,
affect-based trust developed significantly in friendship relations. In comparison, trust based on
affection differed from that of cognition on the grounds of ease to share confidential information.

5 .5 Western Information Technology
Transferring Information Technology (IT) to bring it into practice is difficult for many countries,
and they even fail to transfer it. The major obstacles that are faced while transferring IT into
practices are cultural and social norms of a developing country. It has been identified that in Arab
society the cultural beliefs of the people of various occupational groups differs on the basis of the
construct of the technology in their daily lives (Hill et al., 1998). From the study, it has been
observed that the transfer of technology and its influence varies from the Arab culture to the
Non-Arab culture (Hill et al., 1998). The main factor that is responsible for the technology
transfer in the Arab region and Non-Arab region is the socio-cultural factor. It has been analysed
that in Non-Arab Region, their social and cultural beliefs are the major factors that lead towards
successful IT in the region. However, in the Arab region, people prefer to deal face-face and
develop a family-like environment in their organisations, which mitigate the technology
interfaces (Hill et al., 1998). The traditional and religious beliefs of the people living in the Arab
region shows a resistance towards IT, especially their resistance is towards the IT aspects that
can influence the Arab culture. This influence can be in the form of less humane or change in the
perception of the employees with time.
It has also been examined that the cultural and social beliefs of the Non-Arab region get
dominated by the Arab cultural and social beliefs (Hill et al., 1998). Arab culture does not get
influenced by the external factors, such as level of education or technology exposure. However,
the people in the Arab region are ready for Information Technology Transfer (ITT). It can be
stated that ITT cannot transform the people within the Arab region into Westerners. In this
manner, it can be stated that, in order to bring ITT in the Arab region, a transfer process can be
designed as per the culture of the Arab region. Further, in order to reduce the mismatch, some of
the changes can also be made in the western culture regarding the information technology
transfer, such as bringing loyalty towards national traditions (Hill et al., 1998).
An article has focused on examining the Arab Culture, by testing the cultural-economic model in
order to gain knowledge regarding the international public relations (Al-Kandari and Gaither,
2011). It will also identify the cultural value orientations that affect the culture of the Arab
Region. It has been explored from the article that the cultural-economic model is effective in

analysing the Arab Culture, which emphasises on power, culture and their identity. Arab identity
and their language are influenced by their history and cultural indicators from past years. In this
essence, it can be stated that the people living in the Arab Region speaks Arabic language and
follows Arabic Culture. In Arab Region, there are various groups found, and all these groups are
not Muslims (Al-Kandari and Gaither, 2011).
Cultural backgrounds, it has been analysed that the people living in Arab Region tend to
follow Arab Culture and language, which creates a strong bond between these people based on
their culture. However, Non-Arab people living in the Arab Region feel difficult to manage with
the Arab people, due to language as their major barrier. It can be concluded from the
observations of the cultural-economic model that in Arab Region, their culture plays a significant
role in maintaining public relations, but in West different can be found (Al-Kandari and Gaither,
2011).

5.6 Attitudes affecting the information security behaviours
Although many organizations have deployed highly secured infrastructures to ensure a high level
of information security (Parsons et al,. 2014), the human factor is often overlooked in
information security considerations as a threat to protect their electronic data (Maconachy et al.,
2001; Dlamini et al., 2009) (Schultz, 2005). Information security by nature was more focused on
developing hardware and software network solutions. However, the large number of security
breaches highlights the importance of human behaviour towards information security. The
question is “what are the Personality factors that influence user’s attitude for more effective
information security awareness? And how customising security awareness training through better
understanding of personality trait can lead to more positive attitude towards information
security? ”(Schultz, 2005). Karjalainen (Karjalainen , 2011) stated that if computer users are in
possession of good knowledge about information security, this should result in more positive
attitude towards information security, therefore this should lead to more positive information
security behaviours(Karjalainen, 2011). However, security breaches committed by hackers with
solid knowledge of information technology seemed to indicate that good knowledge does not
necessarily lead to good or desirable behaviour. Another example is breaches committed by
insiders who have high level of technical knowledge do not support the statement mentioned
above.
Human behaviour is non-uniform when it comes to different impulses (locke, 1991). It is critical
to understand the different ways user’s response to various methods used to enhance information
security awareness. Applying security awareness methods on unplanned way may increase the
negative aspects of information security awareness (Siponen, 2000).
In July 2007, the Human Aspects of Information Security and Assurance (Pro. Clarke and Pro.
Furnell, 2014) stated in the “conference concept” for the inaugural international conference at
the university of Plymouth, United Kingdom that security requirements commonly
acknowledged that information security can’t be addressed by technical means alone and the

aspects of protection significantly comes down to the awareness, attitudes, behaviour, and the
capabilities of the involved people. The successful security strategy can be achieved by ensuring
appropriate attention and support for the user’s needs and this should be seen as a vital element.
In 2014, a study of information security awareness conducted in three different Australian
Government Organizations aiming to show how these three dimensions Knowledge, Attitude,
and Behaviours results can be linked to each other (Parsons, McComac, Pattinson, Butavicius,
and Jerram, 2013). The behaviours of end user have been referred to by Stanton (Stanton,
R.stam, Mastrangelo, and Jolton, 2005) as naïve mistakes as the following:
Good behaviours (deliberate).
 Always log off when computer unattended.
 Refuse emails from unknown or untrusted source.
 Use software with valid license.
 Shredding or destroying confidential documents that needs to be disposed.
Neutral behaviour (accidental)
 Share user name and passwords.
 Open untrusted emails attachments.
 Access suspicious websites
 Leaving workstation unattended
 Not reporting security breaches or incidents
 Leaving media devices such as DVD, USB that contain sensitive information on desks
Bad behaviours (deliberate)
 Hacking into other user’s accounts
 Sending and creating spam emails

 Downloading files and video through peer-to-peer file sharing
 Configuring wireless gateway to give unauthorised access to company network
(R.Pattinson and Anderson, 2007)
In 2009, D., Sim,I, Liginlal; L, Khansa (D. and L, 2009) suggested that neutral behaviours are
responsible for many human errors therefore; their research was focused on these behaviours to
develop a web-based questionnaire which was sent anonymously via email to these
organisations and it was complemented with interviews with the senior management. Results
were recorded as following:
In organisation A, 123 out of 222 participants completed the survey resulting in 55% as response
rate. In organisation B, 52 out of 200 participants completed the survey resulting in 26% as a
response rate. In organisation C, 28 out of 746 participants completed the survey resulting in 4%
as a response rate (Parsons, McComac, Pattinson, Butavicius, and Jerram, 2013).
As results, organisation C was found very low comparing to other organisations which greatly
affected the overall findings. Fowler claimed that those employees who choose to answer the
questionnaires are likely to be self-selected participants (F.J, 2002). This means that those
participants are most likely to have an interest in the topic in question considering small sample
sizes. This means that the level of information security is lower than the estimated level in their
study.
The web-based questionnaire was developed around eight aspects of information management to
provide more in-depth context-specific information as following:
1- Importance of information security policies
2- Principles of information security policies
3- Rules of information security policies
4- Password management
5- Email and internet usage

6- Reporting security incidents
7- Consequences of behaviour and training.
These focused areas were chosen to allow researchers to identify any weaknesses within the
information security so this can addressed subsequently by the management in the form of
training, communications, and policy development for example, questions were asked the
participants about their understanding of information security threats and the experience with
security awareness training within their organisation. Moreover, questions were asked about their
general computer use and practices, results were used to measure each focused area along with
the three dimensions: knowledge, attitude, and behaviour.
Allen Edwards, University of Washington, 1953 (Edwards, 1953) stated that the response bias
and desirability bias have influence on the self-report questionnaires, this means when
participants select the same answer to every question it is observed as a response bias while
social desirability bias is observed in a way that ensures they are seen to be behaving suitably.
D., Sim,I, Liginlal; L, Khansa (D. and L, 2009) stated that these kinds of behaviours can be
detected and eliminated therefore; negatively worded questions were decisively included in the
design of this questionnaire to avoid such things.
Overall results of this web-based questionnaires at three different organisations (Parsons, K.,
McComac, A., Pattinson, M., Butavicius, and Jerram, C. 2013) which were assessed using three
dimensions, namely, knowledge, attitude, and behaviours were found high. The study has
described overall comparisons of the three organisations but not between them. In addition,
interviews were conducted with members of senior management which revealed that they have a
good knowledge and understanding of information security awareness of their employees.
However, they acknowledged that some areas of interest and concern needs more appropriate
education such as using social networking sites whilst at work. As a limitation that was found in
this research all results were gathered based on self-report which doesn’t reflect accurate or true
attitude and behaviour as mentioned above , some respondents could be influenced by biases
such as social disabilities bias which was explained above. These respondents may deliberately
or un-deliberately answer in a way that ensures that they are presented in a positive light
(Edwards, 1953). On the other hand, Schmitt and Spector (Schmitt, 1994; Spector, 1994) stated

that self-report can appropriately measure individual’s perception, attitude, and knowledge.
Furthermore, they stated that the chance that employee’s responses about information security
awareness were open to further decrease the influence of this bias as they were informed that the
survey was conducted anonymously. Nonetheless, this study suggested that any future remedial
action should be directed towards information security program that focuses on improving the
policy compliance that focus on changing the participant’s behaviours. However, the positive
results of this study by applying the same approaches and techniques could have undesired
results when considering the culture of other countries such as Middle East as IT technology is
predominantly in English so most people in this region have English issue as a barrier especially
when it comes to IT security. Moreover, the culture is based on trust which affects the overall
user behaviour. In some cases, awareness programs are either weak or even non-existent.
People’s ability to follow written instructions as well as other organisational capabilities in this
region cannot be compared to those of users in western countries.
Eyong B. Kim, University of Hartford, 2013(B. Kim, Eyong, 2014) has developed a
questionnaire to investigate the attitude towards information security awareness and to
effectively build an information security awareness training (ISAT) for college students. He
stated that information security in educational institutions has been number one or two on the
potential to become more significant in the future as the use of information system and
technology grow. He also highlighted that so many reasons why it’s important to protect their
information and systems from possible security breach such as taking online courses, using
portable devices, using emails, accessing social networks, and PCs based on EDUCAUSE
survey, the top-ten in IT issues {Ingerman, 2011 #28}(Ingerman and Yang, 2011). According to
report presented by Data Breach Investigation (DBIR, 2011) it was reported that 83% of security
attacks are a target of opportunity rather than of choice, this means that the weaknesses of most
victims were identified because they exhibited a vulnerability that their attackers could exploit
and it refers to opportunistic attacks. Therefore, students need to know how to effectively protect
their information to prevent the opportunistic attacks.
Eyong B (B. Kim, Eyong, 2014) stated that, according to National Institute of Standards and
technologies (NIST SP 800-16, 1998) there are three keys to address the human factors and
competencies in information security, awareness, training, and education. It’s been stated by

NIST that every individual in any organisation should have security awareness, security basics
and literacy, this is considered as a stepping-stone between the training and awareness as it
provides a better foundation knowledge, i.e. security terms and concepts, for further security
awareness training. The main aim of IT security awareness training is to change security attitude
among employees and therefor to change the organisational culture (NIST SP 800-16, 1998).
Okenyi and Owens stated that the success rate of hacking attacks reduction at both level
individuals and organisation depends on the security awareness training, it’s important to focus
on how a user can exhibit a continuous secure behaviour (Okenyi and Owens, 2007). Siponen
has stated that when an organisation develops a well-documented security guideline to address
awareness; it is unsuitable approach when it is simply presented in a factual manner (Siponen,
2000). In addition, he said that the education program and end-user training in order to be more
effective, it should have end-user buy-in and be easily accessible.
Two approaches have been suggested in ISAT paper (B. Kim, Eyong, 2014) one is to determine
if the fear of sanctions will control whether users comply with information security policies
referred as “sanction-based approach” so the actions of information security can discourage users
from potential computer abuse by committing security violations (Straub, 1990; Siponen et al.,
2007). The other approach which was the main focus of ISAT paper is the information security
awareness training for student colleges referred as education approach (Siponen, 2000).
Gardner (Gardner, 2004) stated that users should internalize the reasons why it is important to
comply with information security policies as the main goal of this awareness training program.
In addition, training is an appropriate intervention methods in the improvement of human
performance model (HPI) when the problem root is those individuals who are lacking of
knowledge, skills, and attitude (King et al., 2001).
Puhakainen and Siponen stated that training program has a limited value because it doesn’t work
in practice therefore, an empirical proven approaches is needed by IS security practitioners to
improve compliance (Puhakainen and Siponen, 2010). Vincent and Ross suggested that planning,
organising the training, implementing, and evaluating and follow-up are the four steps for
effective training (Vincent and Ross, 2001). These four steps are explained as following:
Phase Contents

Planning The need assessment, promotion of the
training program, and selection of trainer
Organising Training
Specified objectives, instructional strategies,
learning theories, lesson plans, course
notebook or manual, and training program or
curriculum
Implementation
Learning during the implementation by,
presentation, explanation and interaction
between the trainees and trainer.
Evaluation and follow-up This phase will evaluate the accountability
and proactivity improvement.
Figure : Four steps for effective training (Vincent and Ross, 2001).
Goldstein, Ford, Sleezer, Zemke stated that these four steps can be more effective training
program by conducting a systematic need assessment that is a crucial initial step to the design
and development of the training (Goldstein, Ford,2002; Sleezer,1993; Zemke, 1994). Moreover,
information security objectives should be investigated to determine if the training can address its
problem to meet these objectives. In more details, when doing so, organisation often conduct
needs assessment which includes three-steps process as following:
Process Contents
Organisational analysis
This process focus on questions such as,
which organisational goals can be attained
through personal training? And where training
needed in the organisation?
Task analysis
This process covered, what training materials
that trainee must learn to perform the job
effectively?
Person analysis Finding, who the targets are for the training
program?
Figure : Need Assessment three-step process (Goldstein, Ford,2002; Sleezer,1993; Zemke, 1994).
The National Institute of Standards and technology (NIST, SP 800-5, 2003) suggested 27
information security awareness topics, only 17 topics out of 27 have been selected to be
investigated as an educational approach for student collages training study. These topics cover
the following aspects:
1- The need for Anti-virus software
2- Updating virus definitions

3- Regularly scan a computer and media devices such as USB, and external storage devices
4- Personal Firewall use
5- Software patches installation
6- Risk of downloading programs or files
7- Risk of peer-to-peer file sharing
8- Risk of emailing password
9- Risk of e-mail attachments
10- Risk of clicking on e-mail links
11- Important files backup
12- Risk of smartphone viruses
13- Anti-virus software for smartphone
14- Strong password characteristics
15- Use of different passwords for different systems
16- How often you change your password
17- Use pop-up blocker
The ISAT paper research stated that students’ perceptions of safety in information security
might be different from each other and it depends on their ISAT experience.
A questionnaire survey has been conducted on undergraduate and graduate students with total
number of 357 students in medium size University in New England. The questionnaire was sent
as an email attachment by third party followed by a reminder email in a week later. All results
were collected anonymously without any identification. As a result of responses, 70 out 357
students returned the survey scoring 19.6 percent as return rate. Two responses were deleted as

there is no specific answer if they have had ISAT or not. IBM Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) has been used to analyse the remaining 68 responses.
Based on NIST SP 800-50 report (NIST, 2003), literature and theoretical standpoints, the author
has developed a questionnaire to investigate the attitude toward information security awareness
that has 27 items for undergraduate and graduate students in a business college. Five of these
items were for demographic information related to the respondents and one related to ISAT.
These six questions aimed to utilize the categorical variables to form the following questions:
1- The year of school
2- Working status
3- Gender
4- Age
5- Major or degree
6- Question whether students have taken the ISAT program recently.
18 items examine the attitude of students toward information security using a five-item Likert
scale (the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research) and the rest of
three items were used to determine if there is significant relationship between ISAT and the
students’ perception of safety in information security or not.
According to McLean (McLean, 1992), selling information security to people through campaigns
could in theory prove very useful in terms of security education as this is considered as an
approach to increase awareness and it is a positive motivation for information security since
campaigns have been seen as measures to improve attitude.
Parson, McCormac, and Marcus, 2011(Parson et al., 2011) stated that many people are too
trusting and have a habit to trust by default. Furthermore, employees can expose themselves and
their organisation often to potential security vulnerabilities associated with the use of social

networking sites. Many users failed to recognise that the information they revealed on network
sites could be used by malicious people with the intentions for nefarious purposes.
According to Acquisti and Gross (2006), people often reveal too much information on social
networking sites, and the impact on behaviour when it comes to the privacy concerns are little. A
study conducted based on 500 participants revealed that there was no relationship between self-
reported privacy concerns and the tendency to reveal personal information (Acquisti and Gross,
2006).
Furthermore, studies have revealed that most people have a limited understanding of the
consequences associated with the security risks or they don’t consider the security and privacy
implications (Acquisti and Gross, 2006; Krishnamurthy and Wills, 2008).
Stanton, Stam, Mastrangelo, and Jolton (Stanton et al., 2005) stated that even though awareness
is essential for involving end users in security efforts, the compliance with information security
policies is not guaranteed. Motivation of users is equally important to incorporate security
culture. As security is a secondary goal of end users, they have been seen not always motivated
to behave in a secure manner (Krekelbert and Sasse, 2005)
According to Schneier (2000) research (In secrets and Lies), he delivered verdict on information
security behaviour “Mathematics is logical; people are erratic, capricious, and barely
comprehensible.” In contrast, the research suggested that the behaviour of information security
possibly will certainly be understandable, organised, and meaningful for those who work making
sense of it (Schneier, 2000).
A Research conducted by Stanton, Stam, Mastrangelo, and Jolton (Stanton et al., 2014) presented
an effort to catalogue, characterised, organised, and analyse a range of user security behaviours
in corporations. Six elements taxonomy of security behaviour were developed that varied along
two dimensions: intentionality and technical expertise. The intentional dimension captures
whether the behaviour was malicious or beneficial while the technical expertise captures the
degree of knowledge or skills needed to have in order to perform that behaviour.

Figure : Map of average ratings for behaviours (Stanton et al., 2014)
As shown in the diagram above, the six elements categorised the security behaviours and
arranged along with the two dimensions mentioned above. The “awareness assurance” refers to
positive security conducted by users with good training. The “Detrimental misuse” refers to
intentional behaviour of users with minimal technical expertise. The “Dangerous Tinkering”
refers to behaviour with technical expertise and without intention to harm the business. Stanton,
Stam, Mastrangelo, and Jolton suggested that the improvement of security performance might lie
in shifting the enactment of the naïve mistakes behaviours toward the enactment of basic hygiene
behaviours with a small increase in security expertise (awareness).
ALBRECHTSEN, E. and HOVDEN, J 2010, stated that several organizational
researchers argue that bringing in local knowledge through processes that involve employees is
both necessary and efficient in order to accomplish or attain all kinds of changes related to
security awareness within organization (ALBRECHTSEN, E. and HOVDEN, J. 2010). It is
necessary to emphasises the importance of employee participation for improving employee’s
information security awareness and behaviour. The intended intervention of Albrechtsen and
Hovden study is to improve information security awareness and behaviour among the
intervention participants. On the hand, inviting employees to share their experience and thoughts
on information security as well as listen to security professionals within the organization in a
small group was expected to result in changes in both behaviour and awareness in Albrechtsen
and Hovden study. The interaction between security officers and employees by sharing
experiences and knowledge is important for information security work, since it creates a
common insight among employees. However, Albrechtsen and Hovden, 2007, observed that
while the effects of employee participation on organizational development and change are known

within several research traditions, this knowledge is not widely discussed in mainstream
standards and guidelines for information security (Albrechtsen and Hovden, 2007).
5.7 Personality Factors effects on attitude towards information security
The term personality is defined as a pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
that distinguishes one person to another (Phares, 1991).It is also been defined as a sum of
biological based and learnt behaviour which forms the unique responses of people to
environmental stimuli (Ryckman, 1982). The structure of personality is fairly stable and can be
predicted throughout different time and conditions. However, personality traits have different
depth and significance such as innermost layer and outermost layer. The innermost layer is the
basis while outermost is situation-bound that depends on situation. For example, a person who
feels tired will behave accordingly which doesn’t reflect the real personality of that person and
that is resulted from tiredness (Cattell, 1950). Personality is an important psychological
mechanism which guides behaviour (Phares, 1991). Everyone has a unique pattern of feelings,
thoughts, and behaviours that is formed by a fairly stable combination of personality traits.
Attitudes and behaviors are likely seen to be influenced by personality traits as personality forms
an inclination towards certain characteristic responses in any given condition (Heinströ m, 2003).
Age and maturity have an impact on the expressions of personality (Costa and McCrae, 1980).
Through the centuries, a range of theories and models have described the personality (for
example Freud, 1996 and Jung, 1986) seek to clarify the dynamics of personality as a whole. The
notion of different levels of consciousness was one of the basic concepts presented in Freud’s
theories. The theory of three levels of consciousness stated that “we are aware of the phenomena
on the conscious level, able to reach the pre- conscious but unaware of the Unconscious level
issues”. Personality and reactions are influenced by all these levels (Freud, 1996). However,
individuals are unique which makes it impossible to predict the reactions with certainty due to
the complexity system of individuals character (Bouchard, 1997)

Throughout 50 years of personality research, five basic dimensions of personality have been
commonly agreed upon (Revelle and Loftus, 1992). These dimensions were found to be used to
describe differences in cognitive, affective and social behaviour. Based on previous personality
scales, these dimensions are: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and
Conscientiousness (Costa and McCrae, 1992).
Revelle and Loftus, indicated that these dimensions are stable through a lifetime and seem to
have physiological base (Revelle and Loftus, 1992). The evolvement of the five-factor model
was originated from the analysis of the terms which was used to describe the personality
(Goldberg, 1990).
Since these factors have become a robust taxonomy of personality (digman, 1990), then
understanding these personality factors dimensions and their effects towards attitude may lead us
to more effective responsiveness of users towards information security awareness. To extend
more on this research, this study intend to examine these five factors separately as they may
relate to the effect of attitude towards the responsiveness of users towards information security
awareness training. So hypotheses for the relationships of these factors with attitude towards
information security are proposed for each factor as below.
5.7.1 Neuroticism
The term neuroticism is a measurement of affect and emotional control where low level of
neuroticism indicates that person is emotionally stable unlike person with high level of
neuroticism which indicates an increasing of negative emotions experience (Howard and
Howard, 1995). Since “Neuroticism reflects person’s tendency to experience psychological
distress” (Ross et al., 2009), is it expected that a person with high score in neuroticism would
have negative emotion towards information security awareness training? Do people with high
neuroticism present higher risk? If yes then, more focus is needed for this type of personality.
Previous studies have shown a significant relation between personality and attitude such as
information seeking behaviour (see Heinstorm, 2003). People with high level of neuroticism tend
to have feelings of being anxious as a result of being put in stressful situation (see Revelle, 1995;
Costa and McCrae, 1992). It was noted that in particular people with high emotion instability

experienced lack of time as barrier when seeking information for example a research students at
the university seeking information in the library database (Heinstorm, 2003). In the other hand,
the research has shown also that performance by people with high level of neuroticism drop in
stressful situations (Costa and McCrae, 1992).
People with high level of neuroticism are more vulnerable to the strain of many conflicting
messages and prefer less confusing information. Therefore, it is expected that there is an inverse
relationship between accepting information security training and neuroticism. However,
customising the training by making it simple, relevant, short and less timed, could possibly give
positive results. This is a way of increasing control and confidence for
Self-doubting persons so the more secure they are the more active and able to accept new
information as well as accepting information security training.
H1: There is an inverse relationship between neuroticism and acceptance of information security
training?
5.7.2 Extraversion –Introversion
The extravert person tends to be physically and verbally active while introvert person is likely to
be more independent (Howard and Howard, 1995). Extraverted people have an enthusiastic,
active, and confident character for example students seeking information wanted to find more
information without being methodical in their search for it (Heinstrom, 2003). This reflects their
attitude toward information seeking behaviour as energetic and outgoing students. Previous
research has shown a common resistance to “bother” librarians with information queries
(Onwuegbuzie and Jiao, 1998). However, this unwillingness is improbable to restrain outgoing
students as a social interaction is an important part of their information behaviour.
However, people with high extroversion tend to have big influence on others which could be a
positive or negative in IT security for example “Leaders” or senior management.

H2: there is a positive relationship between extraversion and the responsiveness towards info sec
training?
5.7.3 Openness
The term openness or openness to experience is a measure of people’s imagination such as depth,
breadth, and unpredictability (Howard and Howard, 1995). Those people are open to new idea,
have cultural interest, educational aptitude and creativity. However, people can have different
level of openness reaction. High level openness people are open minded, have deep interests, and
like novelty while low level people tend to be traditional, conservatives, and prefer familiarity
(Howard and Howard, 1995). How openness affect user’s willingness to follow information
security guidelines?
H3: There is a positive relationship between openness people and the willingness to follow
information security guidelines?
5.7.4 Agreeableness
Agreeableness is a scale that is linked to altruism, nurturance, emotional support and caring
(Howard and Howard, 1995). People who tend to have low level of agreeableness are
competitiveness, hostility, selfish, and jealousy. In the other hand, people with high level of
agreeableness are gentle, kind, and warm (Costa and McCrae, 1992).
Knowing person with high agreeableness, should we expect such a person to have the highest
level of acceptance of information security awareness and improvement of awareness?
H4: There is a positive relationship between agreeable person and the level of acceptance of
information security awareness?
5.7.5 Conscientiousness
People with goal-directed behaviour are measured by the level of conscientiousness and it is
linked to educational achievement or to the will be achieved (Howard and Howard, 1995).
People with high level of conscientious are more competent, dutiful, orderly, and responsible
(Costa and McCrae, 1992).

Based on the term defined above, would it be reasonable to expect the person with high level of
conscientiousness to be more willing to learn and follow information security training with
minimal awareness training? Since the person is dutiful, and competent does he or she need
awareness training? Would brief training be sufficient for this type of personality?
H5: There is a positive relationship between conscientious person and the acceptance of
information security awareness training?
5.8 Personality traits, Information sharing, and Trust
Sharing knowledge and enabling the knowledge creation is essential to innovation and the
managerial success (Nonaka and takeuchi, 1995; Spender, 1996; Von krogh et al., 200). The fear
of criticism and the fear of misleading others can inhibit knowledge sharing (Ardichvili et al.,
2003). Therefore, it is important to understand the factors that hinder knowledge sharing in
particularly at the individual level aspects. Recent researches have not established a connection
between knowledge sharing and contemporary theories of personality (Mooradian et al., 2006).
However, they addressed that need by explicating and testing of a model linking that covers the
understanding of the hierarchical structure of the personality, interpersonal trust, and knowledge
sharing.
Personality has been found as an important factor that influences the behaviour of individuals
when it comes to sharing knowledge (Mooradian et al., 2006). The personality are best described
by the big five personality over years (Costa and McCare, 1992; Duff et al., 2004; Petrides et al.,
2010). Recent research presented a study aiming to understand the influence of personality
factors on individual’s attitude towards knowledge sharing and online entertainment at
University students (Mooradian et al., 2006).
People’s behaviours can be changed by targeting their assumptions, values, and beliefs. As
mentioned earlier, Parsons, McCormac and Butavicius (2014) stated that most users of social
sites are too trusting to a point that majority of them trust by default; thereby exposing
themselves and their organizations to numerous and serious security threats. Parsons and

colleagues found that a significant percentage of users of social networking sites assume that
they are adequately protected on these sites, hence fail to exercise the same degree of common
sense they would practice in the real world (Parsons et, al,. 2014).
Differences in people’s beliefs, perceptions and assumptions define how they react to
information-security threats such as spam emails from phishers; screen pop-ups; as well as
messages sent to them on social networking sites from unknown sources or from friends, but
containing questionable contents and tones such as asking for money or log-ins and passwords.
In addition, since individuals’ degree of assumptions and perception defines how they trust the
presented situations, persons with a tendency to trust sites and strangers easily are likely to set
weak passwords and expose their confidential information to the public (Abdel-Aziz, 2010), thus
making them more vulnerable to cyber criminals and hackers .
Human mental behaviours and functions (psychology) also play a leading role in protecting
confidential information of an entity and that of an individual. According to Abdel-Aziz (2010),
focusing on changing people’s behaviours through initiatives such as security awareness
programs can play an instrumental role in enhancing information security. Programs aimed at
changing people’s behaviours should focus on both cognitive psychology (a study of people’s
behaviours in relation to their reasoning, perceptions, and memory); and social psychology (a
study of people’s behaviours and mental processes such as peer influence). Abdel-Aziz (Abdul
Aziz, 2010) further suggests that programs that can help people change their Ideal Self to make it
more security friendly can significantly help in making network users adopt the relevant
measures to adequately protect their personal information.
Nowadays, Information security also became a major issue in social networking sites. Parsons,
McCormac and Butavicius (Parsons et, al,. 2014) highlighted that there are numerous security
vulnerabilities that are linked to the use of social networking sites. Nonetheless, studies have
shown that most users of social sites are too trusting to a point that the majority of them trust by
default; exposing themselves and their organizations to numerous and serious security threats.
According to Parsons, McCormac and Butavicius (Parsons et, al,. 2014), many users assume that
they are adequately protected on these sites, thereby failing to exercise the same degree of
common-sense they would practice in the real world.

People usually share a lot of information through social networking sites without taking adequate
measures to protect the privacy and security of the shared information. For example, a study
conducted by Acquisti and Gross (Acquisti and Gross, 2006) revealed that most of the social
sites users reveal information that criminals or persons with malicious intentions can use to
engage in a cybercrime. According to this study, about 22% of the interviewed users provided
their real home addresses, 40% publicly displayed their schedule of classes, 88% revealed their
dates of birth, with 40% of the respondents revealing their real phone numbers (Parsons et, al,.
2014).
Parsons and colleagues (2014) stated that the key factor that jeopardizes information security in
the social networking sites is the fact that a significant percentage of the users of these sites are
very trusting in relation to the persons they want to add as their friends. Studies conducted by
Rosenbury in 2005 and Sophos in 2007 (Rosenbury, 2005; Sophos, 2007) which involved
designing programs that would automatically send friend requests to social network users
revealed that about 94% of the users who accepted friend requests from the programs revealed
their personal information (Parsons et, al,. 2014).This loophole makes it easy for social
networking sites to be used for social engineering, a popular form of phishing in the modern
times.
3 Methodology chapter
Overview and structure
This chapter describes the experimental work. It begins by clarifying the
research questions. Moving forward, the second section then covers the
approached methods, explanation of research paradigm, research approach
and mixed methods which will then be combined with a relevant structural
interviews and survey, research design and data collection method. It will
also include sample size and technique, pilot study, and research limitation.

3.1 Research Questions
Defining a research focus
The proposed plan of this research is to attempt to answer research questions by examining the
trust and culture through the lens of local Arab culture. Moving further, this research will extend
more on investigating the nature and the role of trust on inadequately sharing information as the
main focus of this research as found in Arab culture and whether this has something to do with
certain aspects of the cultural factors and if so, to what extent does culture affect attitude towards
trust. Finally, the research will seek to identify ways to reduce the gaps or the mismatch between
western based system and Arab local culture.
One of the vital cultural factors is trust. Existing research in this area seems to indicate that
members of Arab communities tend to have a high level of trust based on shared values, so
further research is needed to investigate possible ways to make adjustments to the level of trust
and therefore reduce the mismatch between western developed information system and the Arab
local culture. Since western’ culture has their own concepts, beliefs, and values about
information system and how it should be utilized, this therefore create what is called the cultural
challenges or obstacles when it transferred to Arab culture which then result in failure accepting
it within the Arab region. It is the intent of this paper to look at these cultural and social factors
within Arab region and examine these obstacles.
Research question 1
The differences between Arab trust and others
As revealed in the literature, trust in the Arabian culture is deep rooted and a central to functional
relationships. It is also idiosyncratic and with dynamics that are different to those found in the
west. This research examines the impact of Arab trust on IS related security behaviours.
Since the Arab trust is a rooted culture or perhaps something they live with it as cultural values,
then understanding the factors that result in such attitude may lead us to more effective

responsiveness of users towards information security or at least to better understanding of the
nature of Arab trust. To extend more on this research, this study intends to identify and examine
the nature of trust within Arab region. The first area of investigation this research will attempt to
address is, “Trust is rooted culture within Arab region. Trust can be dynamics
based on the relationships but leads to resistance behaviours towards western IS.
At some point consequences could result in when breaking cultural trust”
Research question 2
The impact of trust on Info sharing as found in Arab culture
As revealed in literature, sharing information within Arab region communities is a key to
establish trust between partners. According to Palaiologou (2007), trust in relationships can only
be developed in interpersonal communication. Also,Corbitt, Peszynski, Inthanond, Hill and
Thanasankit (2004), concluded that face to face interaction is vital in the initial stage of
developing relationships based on effective communication. In addition, Mooradian, Renzl and
Matzler (2006), noted that partners in a business setting needed high levels of trust. In this study,
openness in communications is viewed as an aspect that builds trust. According to Lewicki and
Bunker, (1996), Rempel, Holmes, and Zanna, (1985) and Lewis and Weigert, (1985), trust in
relationships is developed in different foundations. They range from empathy in collective
calculations, affective bonds, confidence in one’s counterparts and concern for welfare. On the
other hand, many researchers such as Bulter (1991), Zucker (1986) andCook and Wall, (1980)
attribute the growth of trust to the sharing of information with confidence of the reliability and
competence of the counterparts. The paper will seek to investigate and identify the second area
of research “Trust influenced by local culture. Trust dynamics scales define the

different level of trust, openness in communication between partners contribute
to building trust. Trust cannot be established without openness in
communication.
Research question 3
Mismatch between the western based information Technology.
In addition to language barriers, unique cultural values and customs in the Arabian region
contribute to the mismatch between western based IT and Arab culture. However, in the Arab
region, people prefer to deal face-face and develop a family-like environment in their
organisations, which mitigate the technology interfaces (Hill et al., 1998). The traditional and
religious beliefs of the people living in the Arab region shows a resistance towards IT, especially
their resistance is towards the IT aspects that can influence the Arab culture. This influence can
be in the form of less humane or change in the perception of the employees with time.This part
of the research will seek to identify ways to reduce the gaps between western based IT and Arab
culture by looking at the nature of culture and trust. Based on the above observation, the paper
will attempt to address and identify the third area of research related to the mismatch with
western as following “Transferring western IT Technology failed at some point due to
cultural differences which has not been taken into consideration.”
3.2 Methods and Approaches
Bringing some facts drawn from literature, an article has focused on examining the Arab Culture,
by testing the cultural-economic model in order to gain knowledge regarding the international
public relations (Al-Kandari and Gaither, 2011). It will also identify the cultural value

orientations that affect the culture of the Arab Region. It has been explored from the article that
the cultural-economic model is effective in analysing the Arab Culture, which emphasises on
power, culture and their identity. Arab identity and their language are influenced by their history
and cultural indicators from past years. In this essence, it can be stated that the people living in
the Arab Region speaks Arabic language and follows Arabic Culture. In Arab Region, there are
various groups found, and all these groups are not Muslims (Al-Kandari and Gaither, 2011).
It has been analysed that the people living in Arab Region tend to follow Arab Culture
and language, which creates a strong bond between these people based on their culture.
However, Non-Arab people living in the Arab Region feel difficult to manage with the Arab
people, due to language as their major barrier. It can be concluded from the observations of the
cultural-economic model that in Arab Region, their culture plays a significant role in maintaining
public relations, but in West different cultural backgrounds can be found (Al-Kandari and
Gaither, 2011).
The research will began with a selected group of local Arab adults and a group of non-Arab
adults living in the same region. Subsequently, an interview will be conducted with some IT
expert within the Arab culture with structured open- and closed-ended questions as well as the
selected adults group. The selected group will be from different Arab countries speaking the
same language this will allow us to gather more data from different areas within the Arab region
and not only depending on one nationality. The reason why am going to do so is because the
behaviours of for example Kuwaiti or Saudis are not the same as other local Arab culture in
terms of personality and attitude as observed personally due to local economics factors.
Bringing western designed system and security procedure to a different culture such as Arab
region without considering their nature of local culture and local customs can lead to several
challenges such as resistance or low level of acceptance.
A qualitative and quantitative method will be used for the interviews and questionnaire. All
responses will be reported under thematic analysis section within the data analysis chapter. The
ultimate goal is to attempt to predict the success and failure of western based system as well as to
investigate the local culture behaviour and the nature of trust to improve the possibility of user

acceptance. Most researches have used English as a language of their pilot study. Since English
language is a barrier for our culture I will be using both language English and Arabic as most of
our people here is Arabic native speakers and some of them have good level of competency in
the English language so this should be a rational choice. However, the pilot study will be
conducted first using English version questionnaire; in case the questionnaire experienced some
invalid results then the Arabic version will be presented.
Due to the nature of Arab culture and beliefs, the research questionnaire will be conducting face
to face meeting using hard copy documents as the most desirable way in order to gather as much
as possible valid information which suites the targeted culture and increase the rate of
responsiveness. Interviews also will be conducted face to face.
3.3 Proposed methods
The first investigation this research will attempt to identify is;
“Trust is rooted culture within Arab region. Trust can be dynamics based on the
relationships but leads to resistance behaviours towards western IS. At some
point consequences could result in when breaking cultural trust”
The proposed method to answer the above research question will start by establishing the method
to be used. The method will consist of the following:
- Survey
- Awareness training experiment ( Phishing Email)
- Interviews with experts and face to face meetings with employees
The second research question we attempt to answer
“Trust influenced by local culture. Trust dynamics scales define the
different level of trust, openness in communication between partners
contribute to building trust. Trust cannot be established without
openness in communication.

The proposed method to answer the above research question will start by establishing the method
to be used. The method will consist of the following:
- Survey
- Analyze data of security breaches
- Interview experts on breaches
- Analyze the records of the walk-through data privacy misuse
The third area of investigation the research will attempt to address is “Transferring western IT
Technology failed at some point due to cultural differences which has not been taken into
consideration.”
The proposed method to answer the above research question will start by establishing the method
to be used. The method will consist of the following:
- Examine security procedures in the Arab culture through the lens of trust and culture
- What mechanism is being used? Are the effective?
- Examine western Information security Awareness Training
The method will start by designing trust scale and measuring participant’s beliefs about trust
and morality of other co-workers this scale should tackle all research questions. The
approaches of the structural methods and expectations to the problem of the local culture
have theoretical difficulties. The approach may provision a sanction system to force the
culture to change but this might cause more resistance to change as most employees have
mutual cooperation which makes it difficult in large group. To overcome these difficulties
the proposed method is to conduct this experiment individually so employees who stick to
mutual cooperation will cooperate individually instead of inducing other members answering
the proposed test. The questionnaire experiment will be conducted in groups no more than 4
person to ensure a valid responses.
The experiment should cover various factors such as public opinions, trust, compliance,
social trust, mutual cooperation.
The interest of this study has been fueled by observing accumulated evidence that show a rapid
growing that trust has an important role and benefits for the organization and their employees.

The experiment will contributes to the logical understanding of the Arab local culture and
different forms of trust as found in organization, and the antecedent conditions that produced
them.
General Trust scale
Description of measure:
The 6 items questionnaire below shows the general statements that measure the trust, beliefs ,
and honesty of others.
Scale:
Using the following scale, please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the following
statement:
1
Strongly Agree
2
Agree
3
Neutral
4
Disagree
5
Strongly Disagree
1) Most employees are honest.
2) Most employees are trustworthy.
3) Most employees are kind and good.
4) Most employees are trust to each other
5) I am trustful person
6) Most employees will respond in kind when others trusted them.
Scoring:
Each item is averaged together to form a continuous measure of generalized trust.

Description of Trust scale Measure
Questionnaire of 5 items designed to measure a general level of trust towards other
employees. It focuses on two different actors that form general trust: 1. the belief that
other people are honest and 2. Belief that trusting others are risky; these factors will
measure Anxiety scale and trust scale.
Motivational bases
The desire of being greed or fear of being idiot were the motivational bases that causes
not contributing to proper trust towards each other. These factors activated differently
based on the situations. When person being asked by strangers about certain classified
information, fear will have strong effect but trust is not, the other way around when the
same person asked for classified information from stranger the effect of trust is stronger
but fear is not, having said that this shows that friends within the same culture have
mutual trust among each other. However, once the stranger becomes a friend then
everything is changed therefore the stranger will inherit the mutual trust as a friend.
The networks of mutual cooperation relations play a significant role in Arab society in
comparison to western. It is predicted that the questionnaire responses will indicate the
issue presented in this study in terms of trust and related factors. The trust within Arab
society has been observed to help people to move out of mutual committed relations and
increased the trusting to other people in general, so the see themselves more honest and
fair and that in their opinion save their reputations as a culture committed people. The
study intended to present a solution to something can be called social dilemma or if not

found, categorize the possible solutions that explain the issue in more rational way. the
solutions can be categorized into three different comprehensive categories whether the
person is selfish so a need for strategic solution , the person unselfish so a need for
motivational solution, or neither of these categories of solutions which requires a change
in rules and considered as structural solutions.
Scale:
Please indicate in the following statement how much you agree or disagree with the
following statement:
1 Strongly Agree 2 Agree 3 Neutral 4 disagree 5 Strongly Disagree
1. People tell a lies when the can benefit in return.
2. Those dedicated to unselfish causes are frequently exploited by others.
3. Some people can do things well but because others pursue their own self-
interest and cooperation often fail because of them.
4. People are considered honest most of the time.
5. Community security system can affect the people work if developed further.
Scoring
Item 1 is reversed to item 4 which make up the same factor that people do
believe others are honest. Item 2,3 and 5 make up the trust to each other is
risky.

Trust in close relationship Scale
Description of measure:
A number of 17 item measure the level of trust in one’s relationship partner. Answers will be
based on 7-point Likert-type scale. The scale can be divided into sub-scale as following:
1. Expectedness
2. Trustworthiness
3. Belief
The following designed items will focus to penetrate through the way how employees thinking in
close relationship trust. Similar studies focused on changing the process and procedures of
certain guidelines and didn’t incorporate measures to test the way how Arab behave based on
rooted culture and lifestyle. The dominant behavioral controlled by local culture must be
expanded to include a covert processes or measures in order to get into the nature of trust as
found in Arab culture. Fear of shame can also influence the level of trust in close relationships
within the Arab culture and might affect the reputation of their values in the community and
result in misunderstanding between partners based on the way how they thing. Framework will
be presented to integrate expectedness, Trustworthiness, and Belief. Rather than reviewing failed
processes and procedures a need for examining the human psychological aspects based on the
nature of local culture can lead to more sustainable processes and user satisfaction.
Scale measure in close relationships
A designed point scale is presented to indicate the extent to which employees agree or disagree
to certain situations which is related to people who have close relationships with someone and

shows how the feel about it. The rating scale will be placed on boxes to the wright of each
statement.
Scoring description:
The overall result based on these sub-scales Expectedness item marked with E, trustworthiness
item marked with T, and Belief item marked with B will be combined to create overall trust in
close relationships.
Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
1. My coworker has proven to be trustworthy and I am willing to let
Him/her involve in actions which other coworkers find too threatening.
T
2. Even when I don’t know how my coworker will react, I feel
comfortable.
telling him/her anything about myself, including those things of which
I am ashamed. B
Though times may change and the future is uncertain, I know my
coworker will
always be ready and willing to offer me strength and care.
B
4. I am never certain that my coworker won’t do something that I
dislike or will embarrass me.
E
4. My partner is very unpredictable. I never know how he/she is going
to act from one day to the next day.
E
6. I feel very uncomfortable when my coworker has to make decisions
which will have impact on my personally.
E
7. I have found that my coworker is unusually dependable, especially
when it comes to things which are significant to me.
T

8. My coworker acts in a very dependable manner.
E
9. Whenever we have to make an important decision in a situation we
have never come across before, I know my coworker will be worried
about my welfare.
B
10. Even if I have no reason to expect my coworker to share things
with
me, I still feel confident that he/she will.
B
11. I can trust on my coworker to react in a positive way when I
uncover
my weaknesses to him/her.
B
12. When I share my problems with my coworker, I know he/she will
respond in a caring way even before I say anything.
B
13. I am certain that my coworker would not cheat on me, and there
was no chance that he/she would get caught.
T
14. I sometimes avoid my coworker because he/she is unpredictable
and I fear saying or doing something which might generate conflict.
E
15. I can trust on my coworker to keep the promises he/she makes to
me. T
16. When I am with my coworker, I feel safe in facing unknown new
situations.
B
17. Even when my coworker creates excuses which sound somewhat
unlikely,
I am self-assured that he/she is telling the truth.
T
Trust in People Scale

Trust is sometimes treated as a dependent variable; however, this can
systematically underestimate its relevance. The approach in this designed
scale establishes the importance of trust and its related measures of both
leaders and their employees. In fact, the feelings of dissatisfaction towards
leaders verses the employees themselves affected by trust so low trust helps
to create barriers which is difficult for leaders to success and vice versa.
Description of Measure
A designed questionnaire of 3 items presented to measure the level of people trust towards each
other. These items provide dichotomous choice. One of the items is the high trust response while
the other item is low trust response.
Scale:
1.) Generally speaking, would you say that most people can be trusted or that you can’t be too
careful in dealing with people?
(a) Can’t be too careful (b) Most people can be trusted
2.) Would you say that most of the time, people try to be helpful, or that they are mostly just
looking out for themselves?
(a) Look out for themselves (b) Try to be helpful
3.) Do you think that most people would try to take advantage of you if they got the chance? or
would they try to be fair?
(a) Try to be fair-minded (b) Take benefit
Scoring

The choices of 1b, 2b, and 3a considered to be high trust so each one gives respondent 1 point.
Western IT Technology system Satisfaction
Description of measures scale
A designed questionnaire focused on the satisfaction of using western transferred system within
Arab region. These items indicate the employee’s opinion about the simplicity or difficulties of
using western system.
Scale measure
A 15 items of two choices below indicate the user’s acceptance of transferred western system.
Options are given to include positive and negative aspects about using westren system.
1. Overall, I am satisfied with how easy it is to use this system
Comment strongly disagree strongly agree
2. It was simple to use this system Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
3. I can efficiently complete my work using this system Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
4. I am able to complete my work quickly using this system Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
5. I am able to efficiently complete my work using this system Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
6. I feel comfortable using this system Comment

strongly disagree strongly agree
7. It was easy to learn to use this system Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
8. I believe I became productive quickly using this system Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
9. The system gives error messages that clearly tell me how to fix problems Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
10. Whenever I make a mistake using the system, I recover easily and quickly Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
11. The information (such as online help, on-screen messages, and other documentation)
provided with this system is clear Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
12. It is easy to find the information I needed Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
13. The information provided for the system is easy to understand Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
14. The information is effective in helping me complete the tasks and scenarios Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
15. The organization of information on the system screens is clear Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
16. The interface of this system is pleasant Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
17. I like using the interface of this system Comment

strongly disagree strongly agree
18. This system has all the functions and capabilities I expect it to have Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
19. Overall, I am satisfied with this system Comment
strongly disagree strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 NA
List the most negative aspect(s):
List the most positive aspect(s):
PERCEIVED USEFULNESS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NA
1. Using the system in my job would enable me to accomplish tasks more quickly
comment
Unlikely likely
2. Using the system would improve my job performance Comment
unlikely likely
3. Using the system in my job would increase my productity Comment
unlikely likely
4. Using the system would enhance my effectiveness on the job Comment
unlikely likely

5. Using the system would make it easier to do my job Comment
unlikely likely
6. I would find the system useful in my job Comment
unlikely likely
PERCEIVED EASE OF USE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NA
7. Learning to operate the system would be easy for me Comment
unlikely likely
8. I would find it easy to get the system to do what I want it to do Comment
unlikely likely
9. My interaction with the system would be clear and understandable Comment
unlikely likely
10. I would find the system to be flexible to interrelate with Comment
unlikely likely
11. It would be easy for me to become skilled at using the system Comment
unlikely likely
12. I would find the system easy to use Comment
unlikely likely
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 NA
Questionnaire — People, Culture, and Leadership
This is not a test. There is no right or wrong answers. Answer how you personally feel about the

statement in your present job, not how you think it “should” be. Your answers are confidential.
Circle a number for each question.
1=No, 2=Mostly No, 3=Not Sure or Uncertain, 4=Mostly Yes, 5=Yes.
People
1 2 3 4 5 Do you feel valuable and creative?
1 2 3 4 5 Can you be inventive?
1 2 3 4 5 Do you see limitless opportunities for developments?
1 2 3 4 5 Do you know how you fit into the big picture?
1 2 3 4 5 Do you feel you belong?
1 2 3 4 5 Are you valued for your work and contributions?
1 2 3 4 5 Do you have exciting?
1 2 3 4 5 Are you well succeeded?
1 2 3 4 5 Are relationships at work mature and non-political?
1 2 3 4 5 Do you have enough information to make good decisions?
Culture
1 2 3 4 5 People bring their full energy and creativity.
1 2 3 4 5 Relationships and communications are fine.
1 2 3 4 5 senior managers seem to remember what it was like being an employee.

1 2 3 4 5 Power and control is widely shared.
1 2 3 4 5 I am engaged in decisions that affect me.
1 2 3 4 5 The company is open to challenges, suggestions, and change.
Leadership
1 2 3 4 5 Leaders here put people first.
1 2 3 4 5 Leaders here are good trainers.
1 2 3 4 5 Leaders here ask people how they can help them.
1 2 3 4 5 Leaders here set a clear direction — “This is where we are going.”
1 2 3 4 5 Leaders here recognize and reward preferred behavior.
1 2 3 4 5 Leaders here give everyone background information, the big picture.
1 2 3 4 5 Leaders here protect people from abuse from the system above them.
1 2 3 4 5 Leaders here make supportive, team decisions.
Mark with an X, any questions you would particularly like to see discussed in the group.
Please write any other comments and suggestions. Use the back of the page if you need more
space.
The score range is 0 to 3 where 0 indicate a very low trust and 3 very high level of trust.
Data privacy Method
1- Conduct a physical walkthrough of facility or office space to ensure Sensitive Personal
Data (SPD) and Personal Data (PD) are secured.

Items to look for during the walkthrough include:
• Unattended Smart Badges (login authentication method)
• Exposed SPD
• Unlocked cabinets with PD or SPD
• Unlocked laptops (should be configured to lock when SmartBadge is removed)
• Unsecured laptops or docking stations
• Keys in docking stations
• PD or SPD information on boards
• Unattended printed information with PD or SPD
• Unsecured keys for the cabinets
• Unattended flash drives, USB devices or other portable devices on desks / tables * Per CIRS
S502 USB removable media is prohibited, please refer to CIRS S502 for more details.
• PD / SPD on paper or devices thrown out in garbage cans or dumpster
*Make sure if an office is unlocked that you check the office for all of the above.
2- This is not a comprehensive list. Make a note of anything questionable.
• Laptops
• Not locked to docking station
• Keys for laptop left on desk, key slot or unlocked drawer
• Laptop left in unlocked cabinet not secured
• Secondary laptop not secured and left on desk, in cabinet, laptop bag
• Docking Station
• No cable lock

• Cable lock not secured properly to desk (ex: not wrapped securely around desk stand)
• Keys to cable lock left unattended (ex: left on desk or unlocked cabinet)
• Paper
• Containing PD/SPD (see the PD and SPD Definitions tab)
• Tablet/Notes with PD/SPD
• PD/SPD documents left on desk, in unlocked cabinet, printer area, recycle, trash area or in any
box or bag left unattended.
• Other Portable Devices
• Mobile phones
• USB, flash / thumb drives, backup hard drives * Per CIRS S502 USB removable media is
prohibited, please refer to CIRS S502 for more details.
• Boards/Whiteboards
• Containing PD/SPD (see the PD and SPD Definitions tab)
• Smart Badges (computer access badge)
• Should not be left on desk, in unlocked cabinet or in compute
• Should not have someone else's Smart Badge on desk or in unlocked cabinet (ex: admin,
manager/supervisor may have previous employee/contractor's badge)
• Personal Items - it is not a finding if an individual's own PD or SPD is exposed by choice
Definition of Sensitive Personal Data
Sensitive Personal Data (SPD) is a subset of Personal Data that has the potential of causing harm
to an individual and therefore requires heightened protection and care. SPD should only be
collected or handled when there is a specific legal, regulatory, or compelling business

requirement and may require registration with local Data Processing authorities. Specific country
and state legal/regulatory requirements define sensitive personal data, below is list of examples
of SPD:
• ID: Government identifier (social security number (SSN) or last four digits of SSN,
national ID number, passport number, driver license number or other government issued
identifiers )
• FIN: Financial data (credit/de bit card number; expiration data, card identifier
(CCV};bank account number; income or other financial information such as Retirement
savings accounts; credit application data)
• Individual taxpayer identification number
• Date of birth or age
• Race or ethnic origin (including tribal identification)
• Citizenship I Nationality/ Legal status in country
• Health Information -physical or mental health (including genetics); including health
insurance information (any unique identifier used by a health insurer to identify the
person or information related to a person' s application and claim's history)
• Religious / philosophical or political affiliation
• Trade union membership
• Sexual orientation I history
• Criminal history, law enforcement information or court record

• Military records
• Biometric data (finger prints, biometric images, such as retina scan, facial geometry,
DNA samples...)
• Account authentication credentials: User Name in conjunction with password or answers
to security questions; e-mail when combined with security questions or security tokens
• Data pertaining to children
Suggested discussion topics, depending on work:
● Email - encrypted when necessary, how to recognize and respond to scam emails?
● Shared drives / SharePoint - understand when to encrypt, how access controls work, when to
review and update?
● Sensitive Personal Data - do they work with any, understand the definitions and proper
protection?
● Personal Data - do they know how to recognize one and what to do?
● Paper - any documents with SPD or sensitive personnel information? - filed securely, disposed
of properly?
● Privacy incidents - do they work with any, understand the definitions and proper protection?
● USB sticks / thumb drives / external hard drives - understand these media devices are
prohibited and should no longer be used or under what circumstances there may be exceptions.
3.3 Rational selection for methodology

The research methodology is considered as an essential phase of a
research study because it undertakes tools and techniques which help in
conducting the research study in a correct direction and in a logical manner.
Based on the topic and subject area of the research study, the researcher
conducts the study and chooses the best suitable methods for gathering
information regarding the study (Supino and Borer, 2012). In this research
study, the aim is to identify how attitude and responsiveness towards
information security awareness training are influenced by various factors
including personality characteristics, local cultural values and trust in Arab
Region. Further, the objectives with respect to the research aim focus on
investigating the factors that influence human behaviours towards
information security training, namely the five factors included in the model of
personality. Secondly, the impact of trust in Arab culture towards information
sharing as well as information security awareness training responsiveness is
investigated. The next objective of the researcher is to build a framework for
a customised information security awareness training (ISAT) based on the
findings of this research in the area of the personality and local culture
factors. Further, the research focuses on identifying the changes to western-
based information security awareness training to reduce the mismatch with
local Arab culture.
It is essential that the researcher links the methodology with the
literature review chapter so that data collection can be done based on the
research area and the aims and objectives developed regarding the research
topic (Sekaran and Bougie, 2010). It also helps the researcher in providing
justification for using certain methods to conduct the research study. The
literature review conducted in a research study is considered as a state of
the art which enables the researcher to include information regarding the
research topic from various literary sources. It can also be said that the
literature review provides a focus on the subject of the study and covers
each of the component, in order to conduct the study efficiently (Sekaran
and Bougie, 2010).

It can be said that research methodology chapter is significant in this
research study as it will help in designing a method for the main research
problem identified in the study. It will also examine the characteristics of the
research study by applying scientific methods to get to the conclusion easily
(Supino and Borer, 2012). There are certain characteristics of a research
study which are fulfilled using appropriate research methodology. These
characteristics are, logical, systematic, reductive and empirical. With the
help of research methodology, a research can be carried out in a systematic
manner by collecting the relevant information as per the research topic.
Further, research methodology carries out the study by deriving a logical
conclusion and to carry out the study; empirical methods are suggested
using the methodology section of the study (Supino and Borer, 2012).
Another main advantage of using research methodology is that it helps the
researcher in explaining the concepts regarding the research study, which
helps in further getting to the conclusion. Therefore, in this research study,
all the four characteristics are considered for making the study effective
(Supino and Borer, 2012). In this essence, it can be said that the following
chapter consists of various sections which help in conducting the study
properly. Firstly, an overview of Arab region is provided which will help the
researcher in getting an insight into the Arab region and the people living in
that region. The overview will further include three aspects covering the Arab
region to gain an understanding of the research area that is the personality
of general people, trust among the people and their culture.
The methodology section further describes the research paradigm
which helps a researcher in getting a wider perspective on the research
study and conducts the study in a correct direction (Kuada, 2012). Therefore,
it can be said that with the help of information is gathered regarding the
research study will help the researcher in answering the research questions
of the study. Further, another important section of research methodology is
research design, which is required in a research work, in order to provide a
structure to the study (Kuada, 2012). The research design is important in a

research study, as it mainly helps the researcher in collecting the
information relevant in the research study as per the research topic,
assessing the information and then analysing it. Further, in a study,
qualitative, quantitative or mixed research methods can be used to collect
the information (Kuada, 2012). Research methodology chapter further
describes research approach, which is mainly used in analysing the collected
information so that knowledge can be generated by the researcher to get to
the conclusion easily (Kuada, 2012). Data collection methods are also
essential for achieving the aims and objectives defined in the study by using
proper tools and techniques defined in the research methodology (Kuada,
2012). The methodology also provides a rationale for using different tools
and techniques in this research study so that evidence can be provided for
using the tools and techniques in the study to get to the conclusion. The data
collection is done in phases which are also described in the study with their
rationale and methods, so that reader can easily understand the data
collection process of this research study (Kuada, 2012).
3.4 Research Paradigm
Research methodology consists of an essential part; that is research
paradigm. Research paradigm is considered as important because it helps in
conducting the research successfully by providing a bigger and wider
perspective about the research topic (Levers, 2013). It also includes a set of
practices, beliefs, and views that guide the research study towards
successful completion. Research paradigm consists of a framework that
helps in gathering academic ideas and scientific ideas, views of researchers
and beliefs of the researchers to conduct the research study and get some
knowledge out of it. The beliefs and assumptions included in research
paradigm are the views and studies of different researchers (Levers, 2013).
Research paradigm used in a research study can be defined as a process or
a specific way in which a researcher thinks to conduct the study with a
certain set of rules. Research paradigm also helps in giving direction and

foundation to a research work which can be considered as the primary step
of a research study, in order to get to the conclusion easily (Levers, 2013).
Research paradigm helps in the research work to develop the research
design in accordance with the nature of the research study. It can also help
in choosing the methodology for the research while conducting the study
(Levers, 2013). Moreover, it can be said that research paradigm helps in
designing a structure for the research study in order to select data collection
method to answer the research questions appropriately. Thus, it can be said
that research paradigm reflects the views and perception of people from the
world we live in. In the views of Howell (2012), research paradigm is
considered as a technique, which helps in conducting the research study in a
correct direction by providing a structure. Research paradigm also includes
the beliefs and perceptions of the researcher which guides through the
research study and integrates various factors to conduct the study in a
correct direction (Howell, 2012).The assumptions and considerations that are
made in the section of research paradigm helps in deciding the research
design and methods that will help in conducting the study successfully.
Researchers mostly focus on these assumptions and considerations, which
has helped them to develop different research paradigms, such as
epistemology, ontology and pragmatic paradigms (Howell, 2012).
Epistemological research philosophy is considered as a way to which a
researcher can determine how the knowledge can be acquired in a research
study, further developed and transferred to processing. The epistemological
philosophy can be largely categorised into three, namely positivism,
Interpretivism and realism (Calcaterra, 2011). In the positivism paradigm,
the researcher ensures that the findings of the research work are
independent and it can help in developing hypotheses. These hypotheses are
developed so that the researcher can get to the conclusion by testing the
hypotheses with the help of statistical methods. Further, under the
interpretivism paradigm, it is found that the researcher integrates the
findings of the research with the views and perceptions of the researcher in

order to address the aim of the study (Calcaterra, 2011). On the other hand,
realism paradigm helps in getting to the research findings of the research
work based on the reality, where the researcher tries to remove bias from
the study and get the results with the help of quantitative methods. Under
ontological research paradigm, the main focus is on the existing things or the
reality. The ontological paradigm can be classified into two parts that is
constructivism and objectivism (Calcaterra, 2011). From the examination
done of the research paradigms, it can be said that for this research study,
interpretivism is best-suited paradigm as it will in analysing the personality,
trust and culture among the people of the Arab region.
Majorly there are three types of research paradigms which are used in
research studies, namely interpretivism, realism and positivism (Krauss,
2005). As per the interpretivism research paradigm, the world is subjective
and is formed with the norms of society. The interpretive researchers believe
that the knowledge can be gained from the world in which we live. The
knowledge can be obtained from the views of people based on their
subjective experience in the world. The knowledge is derived by the
interpretive researcher after examining the knowledge from people and
studying in-depth about the related phenomena (Krauss, 2005). Therefore, it
can be said that interpretivism research paradigm develops interests of
people into studies. It is believed by the researchers that the views of people
can be only be obtained by enhancing the language, by being conscious and
also by sharing meanings. As per the interpretive researcher, the people
provide knowledge based on their memories, experience and their
expectation; therefore, the results are derived based on their memories,
expectation, and experience (Kuada, 2012). Interpretivism research
paradigm was developed after finding out the demerits of using positivism
research study. The demerit which led to the use of interpretivism in this
research study is that by using the positivist research paradigm, a
researcher cannot get a deep insight into the research topic, as it is based on
the basic description of the data found (Kuada, 2012).

3.5 Rationale for the Selection of Interpretivism Research Paradigm
In this research study, interpretivism research paradigm is used
because as per the interpretive researchers that subjective interpretations
made on the basis of the experience and memories of people are best suited
for understanding the reality of the condition about the topic (Pat, 2006). In
interpretivism, the methodologies used, such as observation method or
interview method helps in deriving a subjective relationship between the
subject of the research and the researcher itself. Further, in realism, the
researchers believe in reality even if they are not proven, and they do not
believe in science and observation (Krauss, 2005). In positivism paradigm,
hypotheses are developed based on the assumptions of the study, which
help in getting to the conclusion by testing the hypotheses. Therefore, the
interpretivism paradigm is chosen in this research study as it is best suitable.
3.6 Research Design
The research design is used in a research study to provide a proper
structure to the research work. In a research design, the researcher uses a
strategy, by which all the components of the study are well integrated so
that the study becomes simpler and also can be represented in a logical
manner (Scruggs and Mastropieri, 2006). Research design also helps in
addressing the research problem as it makes the study simpler. It also
consists of methods for data collection, data assessing and analysing. There
are three types of research design used in the research methodology
section, namely exploratory, descriptive and causal research design (Scruggs
and Mastropieri, 2006).
The exploratory research design is used by the researcher to gain an
overall knowledge of the research topic. These types of research design are
useful for the researcher when the researcher does not have much

knowledge about the research topic, or the researcher wants some
additional information about the topic. The exploratory design is an informal
approach to conducting the research, as it collects additional information
about the research topic and it also focuses on testing the relationship
between the two variables in the research study (Supino and Borer, 2012).
Testing of the variables can be done using the exploratory design, by
understanding the problem of the research study. The exploratory research
design used in a research study helps the researcher to increase familiarity
with the research topic and also to identify the problem associated with the
research study. Therefore, exploratory research can help in determining
priority in research and defining the important terms. In this type of research
design, surveys, case study, qualitative methods can be used to collect the
data regarding the research topic (Supino and Borer, 2012).
3.7 Rationale for the Selection of Exploratory Research Design
In this research study, exploratory research design is used because
this research design is flexible and uses a systematic approach to getting to
the conclusion. The flexible nature of the research design also helps in
understanding the research problem completely, by analysing all the
possible sources. In this research study, the objective is to find out the
influence of value, culture and trust in the Arab region to understand the
behaviour, attitude and responsiveness on information security awareness
(Marczyk, DeMatteo and Festinger, 2010). Therefore, exploratory research
design can help the researcher to get a better overview of the research
topic. The research design also helped in getting a more precise solution to
the research problem, and it also helped in addressing all the research
questions developed in the study (Marczyk, DeMatteo and Festinger, 2010).
Apart from exploratory research design, there are other two research
designs, namely descriptive and casual research design. Descriptive
research design is not used because it highly depends on the observational
methods and casual research design is not used because it uses

experimental approach. The experimental approach is prone to alteration as
per the behaviour and responses (Marczyk, DeMatteo and Festinger, 2010).
Therefore, exploratory research design is best suited for this research study.
3.8 Use of Mixed Methods- Qualitative and Quantitative
The qualitative method of research is helpful in getting an insight of
the research problem, and it can also be used by the researcher to test the
relationship between the two variables of the research study so that further
research can be conducted (Tracy, 2012). The qualitative method explores
new ideas about a research topic and provides in-depth knowledge about the
research topic. With the help of qualitative method, unstructured data can be
collected by using primary and secondary sources. The sources used for data
collection are, interviews, literary sources and internet sources of
information (Tracy, 2012). The quantitative method of research provides
statistical data to the researcher to analyse the research problem and get to
the conclusion easily. The data collected using quantitative method is
structured as compared to the qualitative data. In this method, the data can
be collected using survey questionnaire method, case studies and reports of
organisations (Wetcher-Hendricks, 2011). In this research study, a mixed
method is used which includes a qualitative method and quantitative method
of research.
3.9 Research Approach
There are two types of research approach used in research
methodology, namely deductive approach and inductive approach. The
inductive research approach is also known to be a reasoning method which
helps a researcher in inducing views in general from the existing or the given
information (Jonker and Pennink, 2010). The main advantage of using
inductive approach is that it helps in analysing the given information in the
research study that is collected by the researcher to conduct the work in a
correct direction. The analysis of the collected information helps the

researcher to get to the conclusion by providing a generalised view about
the research topic (Jonker and Pennink, 2010). In this research study, the
data is collected for trust, culture and personality in the Arab region. The
inductive research approach has helped in getting the generalised view
about the culture, trust and personality in Arab region from the collected
information so that an insight into attitude, behaviour and responsiveness on
the information security awareness is gained.
3.10 Rationale for the Selection of Inductive Research Approach
In this research study, inductive research approach is used because
the inductive approach is well aligned with the interpretivism paradigm.
There are several stages in inductive approach that helps the researcher in
getting to the conclusion (Hair et al., 2012). The stages are, observing the
data collected for the research, observing the pattern of the change in data,
developing a theory on the basis of the findings of the data. Further,
inductive approach is used in this research study, because it provides
flexibility as it enables to develop a new theory based on the findings from
the collected information (Hair et al., 2012). In this study, the inductive
approach has been useful for presenting the data obtained from the analysis
of the data in getting to the conclusion by testing the relationship between
the two variables based on the research topic (Hair et al., 2012).
3.11 Data Collection Methods
A process of citing and gathering the relevant information and
moreover arranging them into a structured format, as it eases the process of
measuring the data according to the targeted standards, which will allow a
person to derive more relevant and significant information. This method is
known as data collection method. For the purpose of collecting adequate
information, it is required to adopt an appropriate method, which when is
applied correctly ensures with a suitable amount of information. This process
includes techniques that are helpful in providing proper answers to the

questions and then facilitate the researcher with suitable outcomes for the
research question (Vartanian, 2010).
Data collection method is a very significant part of the entire research
study as the outcomes of the research depends on the data that has been
gathered by implementing various tools and techniques that are involved in
this process. The objectives that are defined by the aims and objectives of
the research are accomplished for sure when the right technique or method
of data collection is selected. There are two variants of data collection
methods. Based on their nature, they are named as primary data collection
methods and secondary data collection methods (Supino and Borer, 2012).
3.11.1 Primary Data Collection Method
Primary data refers to that type of information or data which has
been gathered from various sources and is original as it is assembled for the
first time. The data collected is further evaluated on the basis of the existing
needs and desire of the researcher, but before that, the data is interpreted in
a systematic manner to prepare a statistical table, which will allow the
researcher to extract the exact required information (Noor, 2008). There are
multiple methods available to collect data from various sources at a primary
level that is for the first time. These methods are described as follows:
• Interview method: This method includes the process of questioning
various individuals on the relevant topic of the research. The time is the
most significant element for the entire research study, and this method is a
time taking process when a large number of samples are needed to be
collected. In addition, this process may make respondents uncomfortable, as
sometimes personal details are also required to furnish the details of the
research study. On the other hand, the positive aspects of this method are
the quality of answers and adequate amount of information (Noor, 2008).
• Observation: A special environment as per the needed details is
collected and then the participants are set in that place for the purpose of
answering questions and then their answers and behaviour are observed.

This is an expensive method, but results justify the cost appropriately (Noor,
2008).
• Surveys: Under this method, a questionnaire is prepared that
consist of questions which focus on the important aspects of the research
study and on which the information is to be derived from the individual
participants. A large number of respondents are involved so that ample
amount of data can be collected (Noor, 2008).
3.11.2 Rationale for Choosing the Primary Data Collection Methods
For the purpose of this research, the primary data or the first-hand
data is the most appropriate choice to make. In relation to this research, the
survey method is used, which consists of a questionnaire of highly focussed
questions that are appropriate to derive information to address the research
question. The survey is undertaken to collect relevant information about the
culture and the personality types of people that will be collected from the
general public of the Arab region. A group of the population was selected,
and then the questionnaires were prepared with the questions that were
focused on deriving the information about the nature of the people of the
Arab region. The questions related to the personality traits are designed and
presented in the questionnaire, and then the same were distributed among
the respondents. Prior to this, the consent forms were distributed and were
collected to know the will of the people who want to be the part of the
survey. The people who were selected for the survey were selected from
various classes and regions of Arab nations, as for the purpose of research it
was required to have people from different classes and areas. Therefore, the
questionnaires were mailed to the official mail ids of the respondents. The
advantages of this process are that it is cost efficient; covers large
population, no prior requisites or arrangements are needed, no biases and
easy to manage (Sapsford and Jupp, 2006).
Thus, this process is a proper fit for this type of research and will
assure suitable amount of relevant data for the research study. The survey

method is efficient in gathering data from a large number of respondents as
in this research it is required to be collected from various groups of people
belonging to different regions of Arab.
3.11.3 Primary Data: Questionnaire Survey Method
3.11.3.1 Rationale for Using Questionnaire Survey Method in this Research Study
Questionnaire survey method is chosen for this research study in order
to analyse the views of people living in Arab region regarding the
personality, trust and culture within the general people of the Arab region. It
can be said that the questionnaire survey method can help in collecting
quantitative data regarding the research study (Cargan, 2007). This method
is advantageous as it is undertaken in proper steps and organised form so
that data can be collected on all the aspects that are related to the research
study (Cargan, 2007). Further, it can be said that questionnaire survey
method helps in collecting data from a small part of the population. There
are various phases that are undertaken in the questionnaire survey method,
such as planning the questions, sampling, implementing the method, finally
disseminating and documenting. It can also be said that questionnaire
survey method is considered as a highly efficient method for primary data
collection because it helps in collecting a large amount of data from a large
population but in a small time (Cargan, 2007). In this research study,
questionnaire survey method has been used to gather primary data from the
general people of the Arab region, and it is also ensured that the validity is
being tested by the use of statistical methods (Cargan, 2007). Therefore, it
can be said that use of questionnaire survey method as primary data
collection method has improved the validity of the research study and has
helped in gaining knowledge about the research questions. The three
research questions that can be addressed with the help of primary data
collection are based on the impacts of personality types on attitude, the
impact of trust on information sharing as found in Arab culture and mismatch

between the western based information security awareness training and
local Arab culture.
3.11.5 Limitations of Survey Method as Primary Data Collection Method
It has been observed that questionnaire survey method is helpful in
this research study, in order to gain primary data regarding the research
topic. At the same time, it can also be said that there are certain limitations
of suing questionnaire survey method for primary data collection (Thomas,
Nelson and Silverman, 2011). It can be said that while providing the
responses in the questionnaire, the respondents may not always be truthful,
which can get the researcher in the incorrect direction. Further, it is also
possible that the respondents do not read the question completely before
answering it and thus, provide wrong information, which will further affect
the result of the research study. It is also observed that through interviews,
we can communicate with the respondents face-to-face and can analyse
their emotions while gaining information, but in surveys, we cannot gain
their emotional view regarding the research study. It is also possible that
while answering the questions, respondents feel difficulty in analysing the
questions as survey questions are multiple choice questions. Therefore, it is
possible that respondents skip some of the questions due to the difficulty
that they face while answering the questions (Thomas, Nelson and
Silverman, 2011).
3.12 Secondary Data Collection Methods
The data that is present or which already exists is considered as the
secondary data and collection of this type of data is considered as secondary
data collection. The sources such as journals, reports, online articles,
magazines and academic books are considered as reliable sources for the
collection of secondary data. This method consists of various advantages
that are making this method completely suitable for the purpose of
conducting the research study on a large scale. The various associated
benefits of secondary data collection method are related to money, time and

resources. This method is efficient in saving these said elements, and thus
the researcher is facilitated with current data at low costs and within a
suitable time span. In this process, the data is to be gathered from the
sources where it already exists. Therefore, the only job involved is related to
selecting and gathering the data (Noor, 2008).
In addition to this, the data available is provided by the people who are
scholars and professionally well educated about the field they are imparting
knowledge. Thus, this ensures that the data collected will be authentic and
related to the topic to the research study. Moreover, the other requirements
of this process are related to the transparency of the method and must abide
by the ethical code of conducting the research. It is a matter of concern
while conducting the research that the data must be properly collected in
accordance with the data that has been collected from the primary research
method. In contrary to the relevant advantages of this method the
disadvantages are that the data collected could be insufficient or irrelevant
at times. Therefore, these points of disadvantage may discourage the
researcher to use these methods (Gomm, 2008).
3.12.1 Rationale for Selecting the Secondary Data Collection Methods
In relation to this research study, the methods of secondary data are
employed for the purpose of providing the data that has been already
acquired by other researchers. Therefore, this method is efficient in
facilitating the researcher to have a second opinion of the other researchers
on the topic of the research study. The study of other scholars and
academicians on the personality of people belonging from Arab region is
considered from the point of view of other specialists. Moreover, the traits of
trustworthiness and culture that is being followed by the people of Arab
regions are also taken under consideration to furnish the data for the present
research study. The researcher is provided with the detailed information that
is effective in explaining the concept of this research properly (Baruch and
Holtom, 2008).

3.12.2 Secondary Data: Library Research Method
3.12.2.1 Rationale for Using Library Research Method in This Research
In order to collect secondary data for the purpose of data collection,
library research method will be applied. Library research method can be
considered as a form through which inquiry about a research topic can be
done specifically, with the help of certain tools and techniques involved in
the method (Mann, 2015). In the process of library research method, the
researcher is enabled to identify and located the sources that are essential
for this research work, which will also help in getting to the conclusion of the
study. Researcher in this method tries to locate the sources which can
address various components of the research study. In library research
method, keywords are essential as it helps in searching and locating the
specific sources in libraries, online and in databases. Further, it can also be
said that with the help of keywords, a systematic search can be done for the
essential sources to address the components of the research study (Mann,
2015). One of the advantages of using library research method in a research
study is that it is applicable in every research area and the information
collected from the specific sources of library research method are crucial for
the research study. This method also helps in increasing the credibility of the
findings of the research study. Further, it can be said this method can help
compensating with the limitation of other methods that are used in the
research study to gather information regarding the research topic. The
researcher should keep in mind while collecting the data through secondary
sources that the data must not be outdated (Watzlawik and Born, 2007).
3.12.4 Limitation of Literature Review as Secondary Data Collection Method
The literature review method is useful in research studies to gain
knowledge regarding the research topic, but at the same time, it can be said
that there are certain limitations of using literature review in a research
work. The data obtained with the help of literature review are subjective, and
it may sometimes confuse the researcher as to select which studies

according to the subject of the research study (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005).
Therefore, it can also be said that in some cases researcher may fail to get to
the conclusions with the help of the studies selected. Further, the researcher
may also face difficulty in integrating the different components that have
been identified in the data collection through literary sources. In order to
compensate the limitations of data collection, this research study will include
primary and secondary data collection methods. It will also help in getting to
the conclusion easily by comparing the findings of both the data collection
methods (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005).
3.13 Phases of Research under Data Collection of this Research Study
The phases of the research under data collection method, describes
the phases that will the research will undergo during data collection, such as
data collection or design for survey.
3.13.1 Description of Phase 1
In the first phase of the research study, in-depth literature review is
undertaken by the researcher so as find out the answers to the research
questions. The research questions are based on the impact of trust on
information sharing as found in Arab culture and mismatch between the
western based information security system and local Arab culture. Firstly, the
literature review will help the researcher in gaining an answer to the
question; Trust is rooted culture within Arab region. Trust can be dynamics
based on the relationships but leads to resistance behaviours towards western IS.
At some point consequences could result in when breaking cultural trust”
Further, the literature review will focus on the research question, “to what
extent and in what manner is the role of trust as a component of
interpersonal relationships causing employees to share confidential
information in Arab culture?” The research will also include literature review
regarding, “what changes can be made to western based IS to reduce the
mismatch? How can we influence the behaviour in Arab region specially by

utilising the existing cultural values?” For this purpose, the research will
analyse different theories related to the research question in this study and
try to gain knowledge from secondary sources so as to get to the conclusion
easily. Since the data collected through secondary sources will be subjective
and it also has certain limitations which can be overcome with the help of
phase 2. Therefore, it can be said that there is a need for phase 2 in this
research study so that research questions can be addressed appropriately.
3.13.2 Data Collection in Phase 1: Library Research Method
In this research study, to collect data from secondary sources, library
research method is used. With the help of the library research method, the
researcher will be enabled in developing an effective theoretical framework
regarding the research work. In library research method, the researcher will
make use of different secondary sources, such as academic sources, books,
online articles, journal articles and research paper presented in
internationally. The researchers will also data from different websites and
databases regarding the research topic (Katsirikou and Skiadas, 2010). The
data collection will help the researcher in exploring about the impacts of
personality types on attitude, the impact of trust on information sharing as
found in Arab culture and mismatch between the western based information
security awareness training and local Arab culture. Therefore, it can be said
that this will generate an effective literature review regarding the research
topic. Further, it can be said that the entire process of data collection from
secondary sources with the help of library research method was done in
order to explore the personality, trust and culture within the general people
of the Arab region. In this research study, the data collection with the help of
library research method has been applied with the help of keywords such as
personality, trust, attitudes of people and culture in the Arab region. In this
research study, the literature review done from various secondary sources
also helped the researcher in generating the questionnaire for survey
method, as it covered all the themes regarding the research study.

Therefore, it can be said that with the help of literature review an effective
questionnaire for the survey can be generated (Katsirikou and Skiadas,
2010).
3.13.3 Limitation of Phase 1
There are certain limitations of each research and data collection
method used in a research study. Data collection in phase 1 was done by
using library research method, which is an efficient method to gather data
from reliable sources on the research topic. Library research method comes
under secondary data collection method which has its limitations. Secondary
data collection is difficult as the researcher has to search for reliable sources
of information regarding the research topic (Mann, 2015). Therefore, the
researcher must search for sources which are authentic and provides a good
source of information regarding the research topic.
Another limitation of secondary data collection is that the researcher
cannot completely rely on the secondary data as the data cannot be as per
the needs of the study and the researcher. Therefore, the researcher must
find sources which are presented as per the requirement of the study and as
desired by the researcher. It is also found that in secondary data collection
sometimes, the researcher cannot get complete access to a book and due to
which researcher may get incomplete information regarding the research
topic (Mann, 2015). Therefore, it can be said that the researcher must ensure
that the sources used by the researcher must provide complete information
regarding the research topic. Lastly, secondary data can be outdated and
provide outdated information regarding the research topic which can affect
the results of the study. Thus, it can be said that the sources used by the
researcher should be latest and provide current information regarding the
research topic so that the findings of the study are reliable and can be used
by the future researchers (Mann, 2015).
In library research method, secondary data is collected by the
researcher with the help of online search. An online search can be performed

by searching different sources using keywords regarding the research study
(Mann, 2015). It is found that library research method is comparatively
easier for the researcher as they can search for the data from anywhere and
at any time. It is also found that in library research method, researchers get
confused as to use which information source and which source will provide a
good source of information. In an online search, the researcher should also
search reliable sources which will provide data as per the need of the study
and as desired by the researchers. It is further found that internet is a
system, where the researcher can find a variety of information regarding the
research topic and the search can be performed on the basis of the
convenience and priority (Mann, 2015). It is found that internet is a pool of
information, but at the same time, it can be said that the information
gathered from the internet is not always true. There are various web pages
which are designed by different people, but those web pages do not provide
authentic information regarding the research topic. Therefore, it can be said
that the information provided by internet is not always true and authentic, so
the researcher should try to search for authentic sources of information
which can be used in the completion of the research work (Mann, 2015).
3.13.4 Description of Phase 2
In the first phase, the research study provided a brief and generalised
overview about the research topic, which included the personality, trust and
culture of the people of the Arab region. With the brief overview on the
research topic with the help of library research method, it is essential that
the survey is conducted with the people of Arab region so that the
researcher can get an insight into the personality, trust and culture within
the Arab region. This phase will help the researcher to conduct a survey with
the general people of the Arab region and gather information regarding the
research topic. Further, the two phases will help the researcher in getting a
relationship between the personality, trust and culture. In order to conduct
the survey, the questionnaire is prepared by the researcher with the help of

which the research aim can be accomplished. According to the aim of the
research, the researcher identifies how attitude and responsiveness towards
information security awareness Training are influenced by various factors
including personality characteristics and local cultural values and trust in
Arab Region. In order to accomplish the aim of the research study, the
questionnaire was developed keeping the objectives in mind. The objectives
of the research cover the personality, trust and culture within the Arab
region. The objectives of the research are, firstly, investigate the factors that
influence human behaviours towards information security. Secondly,
investigate the impact of trust in Arab culture towards information sharing as
well as Western information security mismatch. Lastly, the research will
identify the changes to western-based information security to reduce the
mismatch with local Arab culture.
3.13.5 Data Collection in Phase 2: Questionnaire Survey Method
Data collection will be done in phase two with the help of primary data
collection method. The method used for primary data collection in this
research study is questionnaire survey method. Questionnaire survey
method is chosen for this research study in order to analyse the views of
people living in Arab region regarding the personality, trust and culture
within the general people of the Arab region. It can be said that the
questionnaire survey method can help the researcher in collecting
quantitative data regarding the research study. Further, it can also be said
that the method is advantageous as it is undertaken in proper steps and
organised form so that data can be collected on all the aspects that are
related to the research study (Cargan, 2007). In this research study,
questionnaire survey method has been used to gather primary data from the
general people of the Arab region, and it is also ensured that the validity is
being tested by the use of statistical methods.
3.13.5.1 Questionnaire Design for Survey
The questions are developed in this section of questionnaire design for

the survey so that the survey can be conducted by the people of the Arab
region and gather data regarding personality, trust and culture among the
people of the Arab region. The questionnaire was developed with the help of
the findings from the literature review so that appropriate questions can be
developed as per the research study. It is found that the process involved in
questionnaire survey method is critical for the researcher the questions that
should be developed in questionnaire method must be understandable by
the participants of the study. In this research study, close-ended questions
are developed for the questionnaire survey method so that the specific data
can be collected with the help of the participants of this research study. With
the help of the systematic survey, the researcher can gather the data to
analyse the findings of the research study and get to the conclusion easily.
For the purpose of data collection through questionnaire survey method, the
close-ended questions and structures questions were developed in simple
English language. The language was chosen English so that every people of
the Arab region can understand the questions and provide their relevant
answers. However, these questions can be translated to the native Arabic
speakers to ensure the understanding of the questions.
3.14 Sample Size and Sample Technique
It is considered that determining the size of the sample in a research
study is essential as it is the integral part which helps the researcher in
collecting the information regarding the study and getting to the conclusion
successfully. Sample size in a research study can be defined as the total
number of observations that will be considered in a data set (Lim and Ting,

2013). There are two ways in which sampling technique is defined or
categorised, namely, probability sampling method and the second is non-
probability sampling method. Probability sampling method can be defined as
a method of sampling in which the researcher is enabled to specify the
population that will be chosen for sampling. On the other hand, the non-
probability sampling method is another method of sampling in which the
samples are collected from the chosen population, but all the individuals
among the total population are not given equal chances for being selected
for the sampling method. In research studies, the most commonly used
sampling types are, cluster sampling, convenience sampling, random
sampling, stratified sampling and systematic sampling. In this research
study, random sampling and probability sampling methods will be used in
order to collect data from the samples for deriving knowledge out of the
information collected and getting to the conclusion easily (Lim and Ting,
2013).
Sample size will cover generally 300 or more if possible depending on the
time selected. It will target different people based on age, gender, education
status, job title, and experience.
3.14.1 Rationale for Using Random Sampling Method
Selecting an appropriate sampling method is essential as it helps the
researcher in accomplishing the aim and objectives associated with the
research study. Therefore, it can be said that the best suitable sampling
method for this research study is random sampling method (Lim and Ting,
2013). The sample size is 300 general people of the Arab region, which
belongs to different classes and areas. The sample size is taken as 300
because it can help the researcher in gathering adequate information
regarding the personality, trust and culture in the Arab region. If the sample
size less than 300 is taken, then the researcher would not have been able to

gather adequate information regarding the research study. Therefore, to
conduct an effective research data analysis, 300 people of Arab region are
adequate, but at the same time, it would consume more time and efforts of
the researcher to gather the information from the participants and analyse it
(Lim and Ting, 2013). Further, it is also possible that the costs to conduct the
research might increase. The random sampling method was applied to select
300 general people of Arab region for the research study and the main
purpose of applying random sampling method is to remove bias from the
study, in order to enhance the validity of the research work. With the help of
random sampling method used in this research work, the researcher will be
able to gather the information regarding the personality, trust and culture
among the people of Arab region effectively. It can also be said that with the
help of the effective use of sampling technique, the researcher will be able to
evaluate and analyse the collected data in order to reach a conclusion
successfully (Lim and Ting, 2013).
3.15 Pilot Study
A pilot study is considered as a study which helps the researcher in
conducting a feasibility test. A pilot study is generally conducted in the form
of a small experiment to test the design and methods used in the research
study. A pilot study is conducted before conducting the completing a large
study in order to improve the efficiency and quality of the research work
(Kuada, 2012). The main advantage of using a pilot study is that it can help
the researcher in determining the deficiencies of the research design applied

in the research so that resources can be saved. It is found that in order to
conduct a research study efficiently and carefully, it is required that the
research conducts it by making plans. Therefore, it can be said that pilot
study can help a researcher in conducting research by developing a strategy
(Kuada, 2012).
A pilot study is usually conducted by a researcher so that the
researcher can conduct a small comparison with the main study, in order to
use fewer resources and analyse the main experiment. It helps the
researcher in correcting the errors while conducting the study so that the
study consumes less and effort of the researcher. It can also be said that a
pilot study can help in providing a large amount of data for conducting the
analysis of the study so that the findings are effective and the validity of the
research can improve. It can be said that a systematic review can be done
by adding sources to the literature review section of the research study
(Kuada, 2012). A pilot study can help the researcher in providing vital
information related to the research study, in order to use a variety of
procedures in the research study. Further, it can be said that pilot study can
help in assessing the feasibility of the research study and include a variety of
information in the research study. A pilot study can be conducted a variety of
times in a research study; therefore, it can be said that with the help of pilot
study, a researcher can improve the results of the study (Kuada, 2012).
In this research study, a pilot study was conducted in order to
determine the reliability and validity of the research study. Under the pilot

study, the survey was conducted by the researcher and to conduct the
survey with the general people of the Arab region, emails and messages
were sent to them. The messages and emails were sent to ask for their
participation in the survey questionnaire regarding personality, trust and
culture of the people of the Arab region. For surveys, a questionnaire was
mailed to the people to collect their views, and each survey was collected
through email. The survey and the collected data helped me in developing
the report regarding the personality, trust and culture within the general
people of the Arab region. From the findings of the data collection process
under the pilot testing, it was observed that there were certain issues that
were resolved using the pilot testing. The issues regarding the data
collection process are:
 In the pilot testing survey was conducted among ten people within the
Arab region. A short was conducted so as to test the survey questions
of the study and check whether the questions are reliable or not for
collecting information regarding the research topic.
 It was observed that initially all the questions were not answered by
the respondents as the questions were difficult to understand and the
respondents were also facing the issue of language.
 In order to conduct the survey on a large scale and get the desired
results, the questions were revised so that the respondents can easily
understand all the questions and answer as per the research topic.

 The correct answers from the respondents can help the researcher to
accomplish the aim of the research study.
 Further, it was ensured that the questions were not long and
complicated for the respondents. If the questions were difficult to
understand, they were cut short for the respondents to understand
them easily.
3.16 Data Analysis Approach
Data analysis is an important part of a research study as it helps the
researcher in evaluating and analysing the data for the research work. Data
analysis is carried in a process where the data is initially evaluated and then
the knowledge acquired is presented in an effective manner. In a research
study, it is essential to analyse the data collected so that research findings
can be obtained accurately and the integrity of the data can be maintained
in the research work (Jackson, 2008). It can be said that while analysing the
data if statistical analysis is not done properly by the researcher, then the
scientific findings are said to be distorted in the research study. Therefore, it
can be said that data analysis is an important process of a research study
through which, the researcher can get to the conclusion easily. Data analysis
is considered as a systematic approach because it evaluates the gathered
information and presents it in an effective manner. This systematic approach
also helps in addressing the research question by getting to the conclusion.
Data analysis can be done with the help of two methods, namely descriptive
analysis and graphical presentation method (Jackson, 2008).

The descriptive method of data analysis is used with theoretical data,
where the researcher wants to use the subjective type of data for knowledge
generation. In descriptive analysis method, the information is taken from the
literature review of the research study. The data is collected from the
literature review section of the research work and then analysed by the
researcher using a systematic procedure of evaluation of data and
presenting it in an effective manner. This method of data analysis is efficient
in gaining relevant knowledge out of the data gathered for the research
study and getting to the conclusion (Cavusgil and Riesenberger, 2009).
Further, graphical presentation method is another method which is used in
research studies in order to analyse the data collected for the study.
Graphical presentation method of data analysis is used in cases where
quantitative data is collected for the research study in accordance with the
research question. In this method of data analysis, the quantitative data is
collected with the help of survey questionnaire method, and the data is
plotted with the help of graphs. It can be said that the graphical presentation
method helps the researcher in presenting the views of the respondents,
collected in accordance with the research topic (Cavusgil and Riesenberger,
2009).
3.17 Rationale for Using Graphical Presentation Method
In this research study, graphical presentation method is used by the
researcher in order to evaluate the data collected and present it in an
effective manner to answer the research question easily. The data is

collected in this research study with the help of survey questionnaire method
from 300 general people of the Arab region. The data collected through the
survey will be collected and plotted with the help of graphs so that
conclusion can be derived easily. The data presented through graphs is
supported by relevant literature review so that the research can be authentic
(Blaikie, 2009). The reason for using graphical presentation method over the
descriptive method in this research study is that it is easier to interpret the
data using graphs than subjective data. The advantage of using graphical
presentation method is that it provides a wider perspective to the researcher
so that analysis can be done easily and more information can be derived
from the data collected through a survey (Blaikie, 2009).
8. Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are essential for a researcher to follow in a
research study as the ethics consists of a set of principles which help the
researchers in conducting the study ethically and also consider the ethics
while interacting with the people involved in the research study. While
interacting, there are various activities that may occur, such as survey, in-
depth interviews, focus groups and secondary data collection, which is done
with the community people (Oliver, 2010). In order to influence the report of
the research, it is important for the researcher to consider the ethical
considerations while conducting the study. Therefore, it can be said that it is
the responsibility of the researcher to consider all the ethical considerations
so that no harm is caused to any individual while conducting the research.

The researcher must also ensure that the research is conducted by following
a mechanism. It can be said that the researcher must identify all the harms
that can be caused during the process of conducting the research and
evaluate its impact on the research study (Oliver, 2010).
There are many reasons, due to which it can be said that the
researcher must consider all the ethical considerations while conducting the
research. The first reason can be stated as, ethical consideration, considered
in a research indicate a sign of respect for all the researchers that will
conduct any research in future. By indicating the ethical considerations can
help the researcher in acquiring funds for the research which are important
to conduct the research study. Ethical considerations also help the
researcher in getting the research accepted by the community and help the
researcher in avoiding any kind of criticism from the community people
(Shamoo and Resnik, 2009).
In this research study, ethical considerations are considered by the
researcher in all the areas of the research that are included in this study. The
areas are the voluntary participation of the respondents, taking consent
before conducting the survey, maintaining confidentiality while collecting the
data, and proper communication with the respondents and communicating
the results (Shamoo and Resnik, 2009). In this research work, it was ensured
while collecting the primary data that the respondents have voluntarily
participated in this research work and they are not forced to answer the
questions. It was also ensured that the participants were allowed to leave the

survey at any point they want and prior information was also conveyed
before their participation in the research study (Shamoo and Resnik, 2009).
The respondents were provided with the full identity of the researcher and
the detailed information about the research aim, and objectives were also
provided. In this essence, written consent was also taken from the
participants of this research study in order to fulfil the ethics of the study
(Shamoo and Resnik, 2009).
Another important ethical consideration that was considered by the
researcher was that the respondent's information was made confidential and
also their answers were not shared with other participants. It was ensured
that the questions mentioned in the survey questionnaire did not reveal the
identity of the participant so that confidentiality can be maintained
throughout the research work (Shamoo and Resnik, 2009). The participation
of the respondents was based on equal participation, and no bias was done
while conducting the survey. Further, when the results were conveyed to the
supervisor, it was ensured that the work did not contain any plagiarism in
research findings and representation of the results of the research work.
Thus, it can be said that all attempts were made by the researcher to fulfil all
the ethical considerations while conducting the research study (Shamoo and
Resnik, 2009).
3.18 Authenticity, Bias, Validity and Reliability of the Research Study
Bias in Research Study: It is essential for a researcher to consider the
bias issue in a research study so that the researcher can ensure that the

study is conducted authentically and originality is also maintained
throughout the study. As per the bias issue and factor that is considered by
the researcher in a study, it is not considered with the responses of the
respondents collected, that the information provided by the respondents
have been manipulated in regard to the original information or not (Bernard,
2012). In this research work, it is considered by the researcher that the issue
of bias can be prevented by providing equal opportunity to the respondents
who are participating in the research study and not letting the personal
interventions impact the selection process of respondents. If the respondents
are selected by considering bias as the process of selection then it can
create conflicts between the groups and their opinion regarding the research
study (Bernard, 2012). Therefore, it is essential for a researcher to select the
respondent without personal intervention and for the benefit of the research
work. In this essence, this research study has adopted random sampling
method for selecting the sample for collecting the information regarding the
research study. Random sampling method enables the researcher to select
the participants without bias and every individual is given equal right to
participate in the study and provide their views regarding the research topic
(Bernard, 2012). In this research study, the respondents have helped by
providing information regarding the personality, trust and culture within the
Arab region.
Authenticity, Reliability and Validity: It is also found that authenticity,
reliability and validity is an important phase of a research study that must be

considered by a researcher while conducting the research study. If a
researcher ensures that the study conducted is authentic, reliable and valid,
then it can be said that the results derived in the study are useful for the
future studies and the study can also be trusted by the users of the study.
Reliability in a study means a degree through which the researcher get same
results even after several trails through observation, questionnaire, test or
any other procedure (Baumgarten, 2013). Therefore, it can be said that in a
research study, a researcher must get consistent results for the research
questions described in the study. There are three measures through which
the reliability of a study can be checked by the researcher, namely
equivalence, stability and internal consistency. Further, validity is also
considered as a degree with the help of which the researcher is enabled to
the measures the research study in a correct way (Baumgarten, 2013). If a
research study is considered as reliable and valid, then it can be said that
the findings of the research study are accurate and the findings can be
trusted by the users of the research study in the future. It can be also be said
that validity is an important component in a study as the researcher should
ensure that the information used in the research study must be facts that are
universally accepted. A research study can be considered as valid when the
research study provides a good source of information, knowledge and it
should also the practical aspects regarding the research study. A study
should also include reliable sources of information, in order to improve the
reliability of the study (Baumgarten, 2013). Moreover, authenticity in a

research study describes the factor of trustworthiness regarding the research
study. In a research study, authenticity can be maintained by ensuring the
identity and integrity for all the information sources that are utilised in
conducting the research study. It is found that the researchers can test the
flaws in the research with the help of pilot testing method. In pilot testing
method, the questions generated for the questionnaire are checked so that
they are easily understandable by the respondents and also the questions
can be presented without any ambiguity (Cargan, 2007).
In this research study, the issue of bias is considered by the researcher
so that all the individuals can get equal opportunity of participating in the
research study and the study becomes free from any kind of discrimination.
Further, authenticity, validity and reliability criteria are also used in this
research study in order to improve the effectiveness of the research study.
Therefore, it can be said that in this research study, all participants were
provided with equal opportunity and no discrimination was done while
collecting data through survey questionnaire. It is also considered in this
study that reliable sources are chosen for collecting information regarding
personality, trust and culture within the people of Arab region and make the
study reliable. To meet the reliability criteria, it was ensured by the
researcher that the survey is conducted among the general people living in
Arab region.

3.19 Research Limitations
While conducting a research study it is essential that the researcher
accomplish the research aims and objectives, in order to complete the study
successfully. Therefore, it can be said that conducting a study correctly is a
difficult task and it requires an effective planning for the research work. The
planning helps the researcher in providing a proper structure to the research
study and selecting methods that can help the researcher in accomplishing
the aims and objectives of the study. It is found that the researchers
conducting studies apply a wide range of tools and techniques with
appropriate methods in order to conduct the research work in the correct
direction and get to the conclusion easily (Creswell, 2003). It is also found
that while conducting a research study, researcher faces certain limitations
which are handled by the researcher during the completion of the research
work. The limitations that are faced by the researcher while conducting the
research study are known as research limitations. The research limitations
can be said as a feature of research methodology, which influences the
research findings. Research limitations can also be considered as the
constraints which occur due to the chosen framework or method to conduct
the study, which eventually impacts the research and the validity of the
research work. Therefore, it can be said that the research limitations are
essential to state in a dissertation so that the overall impact of the research
limitations can be evaluated for the validity of the research findings
(Creswell, 2003).

In this research study, certain limitations have been identified which
are needed to be considered by the researcher in order to improve the
validity of the study. The first limitation that has been identified is related to
the conduction of online survey among the general people of Arab region. In
this research study, the major focus of the researcher to collect the
information regarding the study was through the primary method of data
collection, which is questionnaire survey method (Creswell, 2003). In
comparison to the questionnaire survey method of primary data collection
method, interview method is more reliable, as interview method provides
more accurate results. It is found that in interview method, the researcher
can also analyse the correct situation and emotions of the participants
providing the responses to the question, while during the survey fact-to-face
interaction is not possible. In this research study, survey method is chosen
for collecting the information regarding the research work because of the
time constraint (Creswell, 2003). In this study, the sample size to collect the
information is large; therefore, it is difficult to interview all the people for
collecting information regarding personality, trust and culture within the
Arab region. Second research limitation that may be faced by the researcher
in this research study, while conducting the research is that the respondents
may not provide accurate information regarding the questions. It is also
found that respondents are not co-operative sometimes while responding to
the survey questions, which may give rise to issues for the researcher while
collecting the information regarding the research study. With respect to the

respondents in the study it is also found that the respondents may not agree
to answer to the questions which may delay the research work and also at
the same time creates difficulty for the researcher to get to the conclusion.
Thus, it can be said that survey method can create an issue due to the
respondents in a research study and interview method is better than survey
method to gather information regarding a research study.
Thirdly, with respect to the survey questionnaire with open-ended
questions, it is possible that the respondents do not provide their responses
as intended by the researcher. The unintended responses from the
respondents in a study can impact the research work as researcher may
misinterpret the information that is collected from various participants of the
study. Further, it can also lead to a negative influence on the research
findings by the researcher (Creswell, 2003). The fourth research limitation
occurred during the research work when the researcher collected the
information with the help of questionnaire survey method. In this research
study it was observed that the respondents delayed in responding to the
questionnaire; thus, the researcher took more time in gathering all the
information regarding the topic (Creswell, 2003). This research limitation
affected the timeline developed for the research study and the study was
delayed. The last research limitation that was faced by the researcher was
regarding the collected of information with the help of secondary data
collection method. It was found that it was difficult for the researcher to
gather secondary data regarding personality, trust and culture within the

general people pf Arab region. It was also difficult for the researcher to find
reliable sources regarding the research study, as there are limited sources
which present information regarding the research topic. Therefore, more
time was spent by the researcher to find reliable sources for the research
study (Creswell, 2003).
3.20 Summary
Research methodology is an important section of a research study
which helps the researcher in designing a method for the main research
problem identified in the study. It also helps the researcher in examining the
characteristics of the research study by applying scientific methods to get to
the conclusion easily. It is essential that the research methodology is based
on the literature review section, as the literature review is conducted on the
basis of the research topic and main problem, covering the research entirely.
Literature review section also enables the researcher to include information
regarding the research topic from various literary sources. Further, it is found
that there are certain characteristics of a research study which are fulfilled
using appropriate research methodology. The characteristics are, logical,
systematic, reductive and empirical. With the help of research methodology,
a research can be carried out in a systematic manner by collecting the
relevant information as per the research topic. Research methodology also
carries out the study by deriving logical conclusion and to carry out the
study, empirical methods are suggested using the methodology section of
the study. It is found that another main advantage of using research

methodology is that it helps the researcher in explaining the concepts
regarding the research study, which helps in further getting to the
conclusion. In this research study, research methodology has covered all the
aims and objectives of the research study, in order to introduce design and
methods to gather relevant information regarding the research study.
In the overview of personality, trust and culture within the people of
Arab region it was found that the cultural presence of the countries can be
seen through modernisation and culture followed by the people. In the Arab
countries they have their main focus on the traditions that are followed in
Arabic style by the people over the years even though the people living in
the Arab region are found to be modernised. Further, it can also be said that
the Arabic culture can be seen through the lifestyles of people living in the
Arab region. It is found that the inequalities exist between the Arab nations
regarding their cultural aspects. It is also seen that in workplaces,
authoritative policies are followed where it can be said that unequal
distribution of power exist between the higher and lower end of people
working in the organisation. For the level of trust, it can be said that the
nations in Arab region has high level of trust among them and they are also
willing to share information with each other; therefore, it can be said that
possibility of misunderstandings is less and people have positive attitude.
One of the important sections of research methodology is research
paradigm because it helps the researcher to conduct the research
successfully by providing a bigger and wider perspective. It also includes a

set of practices, beliefs, and views that guide the research study towards
successful completion. Further, it can be said that a research paradigm
provides a framework that helps in gathering academic ideas and scientific
ideas, views of researcher and beliefs of the researcher to conduct the
research study and get some knowledge out of it. The main advantage of
involving research paradigm in a research methodology section is that it
helps the researcher in giving direction and foundation to a research work
which can be considered as the primary step of a research study. Another
advantage of research paradigm can be stated as; it provides a logical
direction so that the study can be completed effectively by generating
knowledge out of the information collected. Research paradigm can also help
the researcher to develop the research design in accordance with the nature
of the research study. There are three types of research paradigms which
are used in research studies, namely interpretivism, realism and positivism.
In positivism paradigm, it is found that the researcher ensures that the
findings of the research work are independent and it can help the researcher
in developing hypotheses. These hypotheses are developed so that the
researcher can get to the conclusion by testing the hypotheses with the help
of statistical methods. In interpretivism paradigm, it is observed that the
world is subjective and is formed with the norms of society as per the
researcher. The knowledge can be obtained from the views of people based
on their subjective experience in the world. The knowledge is derived by the
interpretive researcher after examining the knowledge from people and

studying in-depth about the related phenomena. Further, realism paradigm
helps the researcher to get to the research findings based on the reality,
where the researcher tries to remove bias from the study and get the results
with the help of quantitative methods. In this research study, the researcher
has used interpretivism paradigm so that views of people can be gathered.
Interpretivism paradigm uses method such as observation method or
interview method helps the researcher to derive a subjective relationship
between the subject of the research and the researcher itself.
In the net section of research methodology, research design is included
which is also an important part of the methodology section. It can be said
that research design is used in a research study to provide a proper structure
to the research work. In a research design, the researcher uses a strategy,
by which all the components of the study are well integrated so that the
study becomes simpler and also can be represented in a logical manner. It
can also be said that research design further helps the researcher in
addressing the research problem as it makes the study simpler. The main
advantage of using research design in a study is that it consists of methods
for data collection, data assessing and analysing. It can help the researcher
in conducting the study appropriately and also incorrect direction. There are
mainly three types of research design available to conduct the research
studies, namely exploratory, descriptive and causal research design. In this
research study, exploratory research design is used because it helps the
researcher to gain an overall knowledge of the research topic. It can also

help the researcher by gaining additional information about the research
topic. The exploratory design is considered as an informal approach to
conduct the research, as it collects additional information about the research
topic and it also focuses on testing the relationship between the two
variables in the research study. The two variables are tested so that the
researcher can understand the main problem of the research study;
therefore, it increases the familiarity of the research study. In this type of
research design, surveys, case study, qualitative methods can be used to
collect the data regarding the research topic.
In this research study mixed method is used as a research method. In
mixed method, qualitative method and quantitative method is used to gain
information regarding the research topic. The qualitative method of research
is helpful in getting an insight of the research problem, and it can also be
used by the researcher to test the relationship between the two variables of
the research study so that further research can be conducted. Further, it has
been found that with the help of qualitative method of research a researcher
is enabled to explore new ideas about a research topic and provides in-depth
knowledge about the research topic. It can also be said that with the help of
qualitative method, unstructured data can be collected by using primary and
secondary sources. The sources used for data collection are, interviews,
literary sources and internet sources of information. Second method of
research is quantitative method which provides statistical data to the
researcher to analyse the research problem and get to the conclusion easily.

The data collected using quantitative method is structured as compared to
the qualitative data. Quantitative method uses survey questionnaire method,
case studies and reports of organisations to gather information.
In the net section inductive research approach is used in this research
study. The inductive research approach is also known to be a reasoning
method which helps a researcher in inducing views in general from the
existing or the given information. One of the advantages of using inductive
approach is that it helps in analysing the given information in the research
study that is collected by the researcher to conduct the work in a correct
direction. In this research study, the inductive approach has helped the
researcher in collecting data regarding trust, culture and personality in the
Arab region. The researcher has also gained the generalised view about the
culture, trust and personality in Arab region from the collected information
so that the researcher can get an insight into attitude, behaviour and
responsiveness on the information security awareness.
Data collection method is considered as the most important part of a
research study, as it is a process through which a researcher can gather
relevant information and moreover arranging the data into a structured
format, as it eases the process of measuring the data according to the
targeted standards, which will allow a person to derive more relevant and
significant information. For the purpose of collecting adequate information, it
is required to adopt an appropriate method, which when is applied correctly
ensures the researcher with a suitable amount of information. With the help

of data collection method the researcher has addressed aims and objectives
of the research study in significant manner. There are two types of data
collection methods that are used in a research study, namely primary
method and secondary method. Primary data refers to that type of
information or data which has been gathered from various sources and is
original as it is assembled for the first time. The data collected is further
evaluated on the basis of the existing needs and desire of the researcher,
but before that, the data is interpreted in a systematic manner to prepare a
statistical table, which will allow the researcher to extract the exact required
information. Primary data collection in this research study has been done
with the help of questionnaire survey method. Under this method, a
questionnaire is prepared that consist of questions which focus on the
important aspects of the research study and on which the information is to
be derived from the individual participants. A large number of respondents
are involved so that ample amount of data can be collected. Primary data
collection method is used in this research study, because it helps the
researcher in gathering first-hand data which will collect relevant information
about the culture and the personality types of people. The questions related
to the personality traits are designed and presented in the questionnaire,
and then the same were distributed among the respondents. Prior consent
was also taken to know the will of the people who want to be the part of the
survey.

Secondary data collection was done with the help of library research
method. The main advantage of using library research method is that it
enables the researcher to identify and located the sources that are essential
for this research work, which will also help the researcher in getting to the
conclusion of the study. The library research method involves keywords, that
are essential as it helps in searching and locating the specific sources in
libraries, online and in databases. It is found that, with the help of library
research method, a researcher is enabled to systematically search the
required and essential sources to address the components of the research
study. The research methodology chapter also describes the phases of data
collection, in which primary data is collected and in second phase secondary
sources are explored. The sample size taken for conducting survey is 200
general people of Arab region and sampling technique used to select the
sample is random sampling method. Random sampling method is selected in
this research study as it helped the researcher in collecting data from the
samples for deriving knowledge out of the information collected and getting
to the conclusion easily.

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS
Descriptive statistics
N Range Minimu
m
Maximu
m
Mean Std.
Deviation
Varianc
e
age 25 36.00 24.00 60.00 36.6000 7.29155 53.167
education 25 2.00 1.00 3.00 1.2800 .54160 .293
Degree country 25 1.00 1.00 2.00 1.4800 .50990 .260
Occupation 25 14.00 1.00 15.00 8.1200 4.61266 21.277
Work
experience 25 19.00 2.00 21.00 10.6000 5.64948 31.917
Valid N
(listwise) 25
Outcome of descriptive statistics show that average number of selected respondents have
educational background in Science field. Further, tabular presentation shows that mean personnel
belong from home country. In addition to this, out of 25, average number of employees have
experience of approximately 11 years. Through statistical assessment it has identified that on
average number of employees are working as decision analyst.
Descriptive statistics pertaining to other variables

Frequencies
Statistics
age employe
esarehon
est
employe
esaretrus
tworthy
employe
esarekind
andgood
employe
esaretrust
toeachot
her
amtrustf
ulperson
employe
eswillres
pondinki
ndwheno
therstrust
edthem
N
Va
lid 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
Mi
ssi
ng
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mean 36.6000 2.6000 2.5200 2.3200 2.7600 1.6400 1.9200
Median 35.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 3.0000 2.0000 2.0000
Mode 33.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
Std.
Deviatio
n
7.29155 1.04083 1.00499 .74833 .92556 .56862 .75939
Interpretation: The present table is reflecting descriptive statistics related to nature of
employees on basis of honesty and in this selected average sample have given neutral responses
but mostly employees are honesty. In the same series, it had articulated average employees are
trustworthy and in its aggregate there is presence of trustworthiness among employees. In the
similar aspect, by testing nature as kind and good average employees are having these qualities
and simultaneously the highest employees are having this nature. On an average, all employees
trust each other but on neutral aspect some employees doesn't. As a trustful person average
sample are agreeing along with aggregate as well. While trusting them employees respond in
positive aspect.

Frequency Table
age
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
24.00 1 4.0 4.0 4.0
29.00 2 8.0 8.0 12.0
30.00 1 4.0 4.0 16.0
31.00 1 4.0 4.0 20.0
32.00 2 8.0 8.0 28.0
33.00 3 12.0 12.0 40.0
34.00 2 8.0 8.0 48.0
35.00 2 8.0 8.0 56.0
37.00 1 4.0 4.0 60.0
38.00 1 4.0 4.0 64.0
39.00 1 4.0 4.0 68.0
40.00 1 4.0 4.0 72.0
41.00 2 8.0 8.0 80.0
42.00 2 8.0 8.0 88.0
44.00 1 4.0 4.0 92.0
47.00 1 4.0 4.0 96.0
60.00 1 4.0 4.0 100.0
Total 25 100.0 100.0

employeesare
honest
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
1.00 3 12.0 12.0 12.0
2.00 10 40.0 40.0 52.0
3.00 7 28.0 28.0 80.0
4.00 4 16.0 16.0 96.0
5.00 1 4.0 4.0 100.0
Total 25 100.0 100.0

Interpretation: In the above table it had been stated test of honesty of employees as 12%
of respondents have strongly agreed that they are honest and on similar aspect, 40% are fine with
honesty statement. On the contrary, 16% disagree on their honesty and 4% strongly disagree. It
had been assessed that 28% are not either agree nor disagree which could be stated as neutral
response towards honesty.
employeesare
trustworthy
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
1.00 3 12.0 12.0 12.0
2.00 12 48.0 48.0 60.0
3.00 4 16.0 16.0 76.0
4.00 6 24.0 24.0 100.0
Total 25 100.0 100.0

Interpretation: There is presence of total 100 respondents in which 12% are strongly
agreed that they are trustworthy and majority of respondent also agree for this nature. In the
similar aspect 24% denied that they are not trustworthy simultaneously, 16% have given neutral
responses about nature of trustworthy.
employeesare
kindandgood
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
1.00 3 12.0 12.0 12.0
2.00 12 48.0 48.0 60.0
3.00 9 36.0 36.0 96.0
4.00 1 4.0 4.0 100.0
Total 25 100.0 100.0

Interpretation: In the above table, 12% respondents says that they are kind and good in
strong aspect and majority as 48% agree on kind and good nature. Here 4% disagree on this
context and however, 36% has given neutral answer that they are niether kind nor good.
employeesare
trusttoeachot
her
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
1.00 3 12.0 12.0 12.0
2.00 5 20.0 20.0 32.0
3.00 12 48.0 48.0 80.0
4.00 5 20.0 20.0 100.0
Total 25 100.0 100.0

Interpretation: The above table is signifying that about nature of trusting each other
where 12% strongly agree about this statement. Majority of 48% had given neutral response and
20% disagree that employees could not trust each other. In the similar aspect 20% respondents
agree that employees might trust there colleagues.
amtrustfulpe
rson
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
1.00 10 40.0 40.0 40.0
2.00 14 56.0 56.0 96.0
3.00 1 4.0 4.0 100.0
Total 25 100.0 100.0

Interpretation: The above table signifying about adjective as trustful person in specified
data set. Here 40% of respondents strongly agree that they are trustful on similar statement
another 56% agree about this. On the contrary, nobody disagrees about being trustful and 4%
have given neutral answer.
employeeswill
respondinkin
dwhenotherst
rustedthem
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid 1.00 7 28.0 28.0 28.0
2.00 14 56.0 56.0 84.0
3.00 3 12.0 12.0 96.0
4.00 1 4.0 4.0 100.0

Total 25 100.0 100.0
Interpretation: The above table is replicating responses of employees on basis of people
who are trusting them in kind aspect. 28% strongly agree that they give response in kind manner
who trust them and majority of 56% agreed on this statement. However, 3% have given neutral
answer about their behavior towards person who trust them.

Independent sample t test
Hypothesis
Null hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in the mean values of employee honesty
with BSc's and individuals with MBAs.
Alternative hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference in the mean values of employee
honesty with BSc's and individuals with MBAs.
Group
Statistics
education N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
employeesarehonest BSC 19 2.6842 1.15723 .26549
MBA 5 2.4000 .54772 .24495
Indepen
dent
Sample
s Test
Levene's
Test for
Equality
of
Variance
s
t-test for
Equality
of Means
F Sig. t df Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Differenc
e
Std.
Error
Differenc
e
95%
Confiden
ce
Interval
of the
Differenc
e

Lower Upper
employeesarehonest
Equal
variances
assumed
3.140 .090 .527 22 .603 .28421 .53906 -.8337
3 1.40215
Equal
variances
not
assumed
.787 14.478 .444 .28421 .36122 -.4881
5 1.05657
P>0.05: null hypothesis accepted
Interpretation: By doing statistical analysis, it has found that p>0.05, such as .603
and .444 respectively. This aspect clearly presents that null hypothesis is true and other one false.
Referring overall outcome it can be depicted that employees honesty is not differing in the
context of individuals with MBA and BSC.
Discussion: In this study there is need of determining attitude and responsiveness for
awareness of information security for influencing through various factors such as personality
characteristics, trust and local culture about employees in Arab region. According to outcome,
majority of respondents have commented positive about honesty and trustworthiness. Further,
they only agree on kind and good nature along with trusting each other. No respondents have
disagreed as trustful person and negative responses for being kind who trust them.
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