Introduction Numbers of Active Instagram Users
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1.Introduction Numbers of active Instagram users are increasing every year.Instagram is the social media platform which is considered as the fastest growing network site globally (Wagner, 2015). They contribute more than 100 million videos and photos every day ("Instagram by the Numbers (2020): Stats, Demographics & Fun Facts", 2020). They contribute more than 100 million videos and photos every day ("Instagram by the Numbers (2020): Stats, Demographics & Fun Facts", 2020).
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1.Introduction
Numbers of active Instagram users are increasing every year.Instagram is the social media
platform which is considered as the fastest growing network site globally (Wagner, 2015). It
has seen rapid growth in the number of users as well as uploads since its launch in October
2010. In 2018, more than 1 billion users are using Instagram. Among those, more than 500
million Instagram users are active every single day. ("Instagram Business", 2020). They
contribute more than 100 million videos and photos every day ("Instagram by the Numbers
(2020): Stats, Demographics & Fun Facts", 2020). This platform is known to have a more
affluent audience and many celebrities are using it as well. Cristiano Ronaldo is the most-
followed celebrity with 197 million followers on Instagram - as 3 times bigger than the
German population and this number keeps growing. Most of them share their fabulous and
luxurious lifestyles to their fans. This unintentionally leads to social comparison and
negative emotions from their followers. Social comparison theory by Festinger (1954) can
be applied to explain this phenomenon (see chapter 2.1). This theory suggests that people
evaluate their own personal worth based on how they compare to others.
Acquiring a thorough understanding of Instagram under different perspectives is important
because it will help us gain insights on social, cultural issues about people. Many
researchers have tackled different approaches (e.g. Emotional consequences, Negative
Social Comparison), therefore we will explore it from a different perspective. To be more
specific, we would aim for:
What are the motives and drivers for using Instagram?
How much Instagram influences the user’s self-esteem?
Do users evaluate themselves in terms of the number of followers and feedback?
Does the tendency of comparison with celebrities or friends increase or decrease the user’s
self-evaluation?
With these aims, the current research entailed a mixed-methods approach in which both
qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed. This mixed-methods study gives both
qualitative and quantitative data equal priority. Qualitative analysis is used to examine the
activity of users on Instagram. Based on our analysis, several insights about their motives
and drivers will be revealed in the quantitative analysis. Furthermore, quantitative results
also show how self-evaluation and social comparison correlates to one another. Last but not
least, it is also important to look into how emotional consequences affect their intention to
use Instagram in the future, whether users want to keep using or not.
A picture speaks a thousand words. But also, how Instagram users react or feel about any
content on their newsfeed speak many insights about themselves or to be more specifically
their self-esteem. Does a twinge of envy when witnessing other’s happiness show one’s low
self-esteem? Or may indifference reflect the other way around? And despite negative
emotion when using Instagram, do users continue using this platform in the future?
Let’s figure out in the next chapters.
1
Numbers of active Instagram users are increasing every year.Instagram is the social media
platform which is considered as the fastest growing network site globally (Wagner, 2015). It
has seen rapid growth in the number of users as well as uploads since its launch in October
2010. In 2018, more than 1 billion users are using Instagram. Among those, more than 500
million Instagram users are active every single day. ("Instagram Business", 2020). They
contribute more than 100 million videos and photos every day ("Instagram by the Numbers
(2020): Stats, Demographics & Fun Facts", 2020). This platform is known to have a more
affluent audience and many celebrities are using it as well. Cristiano Ronaldo is the most-
followed celebrity with 197 million followers on Instagram - as 3 times bigger than the
German population and this number keeps growing. Most of them share their fabulous and
luxurious lifestyles to their fans. This unintentionally leads to social comparison and
negative emotions from their followers. Social comparison theory by Festinger (1954) can
be applied to explain this phenomenon (see chapter 2.1). This theory suggests that people
evaluate their own personal worth based on how they compare to others.
Acquiring a thorough understanding of Instagram under different perspectives is important
because it will help us gain insights on social, cultural issues about people. Many
researchers have tackled different approaches (e.g. Emotional consequences, Negative
Social Comparison), therefore we will explore it from a different perspective. To be more
specific, we would aim for:
What are the motives and drivers for using Instagram?
How much Instagram influences the user’s self-esteem?
Do users evaluate themselves in terms of the number of followers and feedback?
Does the tendency of comparison with celebrities or friends increase or decrease the user’s
self-evaluation?
With these aims, the current research entailed a mixed-methods approach in which both
qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed. This mixed-methods study gives both
qualitative and quantitative data equal priority. Qualitative analysis is used to examine the
activity of users on Instagram. Based on our analysis, several insights about their motives
and drivers will be revealed in the quantitative analysis. Furthermore, quantitative results
also show how self-evaluation and social comparison correlates to one another. Last but not
least, it is also important to look into how emotional consequences affect their intention to
use Instagram in the future, whether users want to keep using or not.
A picture speaks a thousand words. But also, how Instagram users react or feel about any
content on their newsfeed speak many insights about themselves or to be more specifically
their self-esteem. Does a twinge of envy when witnessing other’s happiness show one’s low
self-esteem? Or may indifference reflect the other way around? And despite negative
emotion when using Instagram, do users continue using this platform in the future?
Let’s figure out in the next chapters.
1
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2. Literature review
Instagram is being used primarily for sharing photos and images either with friends or the
wider public. It allows followers, either friends or strangers to leave comments and likes. These
features characterize activity that may make people particularly vulnerable to negative effects of use
on well-being. It is important to study the social aspects of Instagram users’ motives and intentions.
Aims of the search were to find articles regarding use of Instagram, esp. motive, social
comparison and self-esteem. Our first search was conducted via Google Scholar by searching with
relevant keywords. We found ten articles thus we had to reduce to 7 articles. We were looking at the
number of citations of these articles, but there was not enough citation for these articles, thus we
looked for another quality indicator. The next step was to look at the VHB list, which is Verband
der Hochschullehrer für Betriebswirtschaft (VHB) with rankings go from A+ (highest) to D
(lowest) to see how the articles are ranked, but these articles were not ranked. Luckily there was one
quality indicator that we could find whether these articles (journals) are suitable and trusted enough
to be used in this study. With the help of JIF, stands for Journals Impact Factor (JIF) providing tools
for ranking, evaluating various International/National Journals having ISSN published by Learning
societies Universities and Institutions & Publication house, we found that all the articles had high
percentage impact with values over 10% of citation and impact (see table 2). The last step was to
look for the fit of these articles with the aim of our study. Table 1 gives an overview of our article
collection and how many times they were cited and how they are ranked on VHB list and JIF:
# Article Author
Year
VHB
List
Citation
Google
Scholar
JIF
1 The effect of Instagram
likes on women's social comparison and body
dissatisfaction
Sep.,2018 Not
ranked
21 3.124
(21%)
2 Self-Schema and Self-discrepancy mediate the
influence of Instagram usage on body image
satisfaction among youth
March,
2017
Not
ranked
66 4.206
(11.4%)
3 The Positive Side of Social Comparison on
Social Network Sites: How envy can drive
insoiration on Instagram
2018 Not
ranked
11 2.65 -
(39,4%)
4 Social Comparison as the thief of Joy: Emotional
Consequences of viewing Strangers' Instagram
Posts
2018 Not
ranked
35 3.502 -
(21%)
5 Social Media and Loneliness: Why an Instagram
picture may be worth more than a thousand
Twitter words
Sep 16 Not
ranked
258 3.536 -
(21%)
6 Instagram #Instasad?: Exploring Associations
Among Instagram Use, Depressive Symptoms,
Negative Social Comparison and Strangers
Followed
2015 Not
ranked
182 2.650 -
(39,4%)
7 Instagram: motives for ist use and relationship to
narcissim and contextual age
2016 Not
ranked
357 3.435 -
(21%)
2
Instagram is being used primarily for sharing photos and images either with friends or the
wider public. It allows followers, either friends or strangers to leave comments and likes. These
features characterize activity that may make people particularly vulnerable to negative effects of use
on well-being. It is important to study the social aspects of Instagram users’ motives and intentions.
Aims of the search were to find articles regarding use of Instagram, esp. motive, social
comparison and self-esteem. Our first search was conducted via Google Scholar by searching with
relevant keywords. We found ten articles thus we had to reduce to 7 articles. We were looking at the
number of citations of these articles, but there was not enough citation for these articles, thus we
looked for another quality indicator. The next step was to look at the VHB list, which is Verband
der Hochschullehrer für Betriebswirtschaft (VHB) with rankings go from A+ (highest) to D
(lowest) to see how the articles are ranked, but these articles were not ranked. Luckily there was one
quality indicator that we could find whether these articles (journals) are suitable and trusted enough
to be used in this study. With the help of JIF, stands for Journals Impact Factor (JIF) providing tools
for ranking, evaluating various International/National Journals having ISSN published by Learning
societies Universities and Institutions & Publication house, we found that all the articles had high
percentage impact with values over 10% of citation and impact (see table 2). The last step was to
look for the fit of these articles with the aim of our study. Table 1 gives an overview of our article
collection and how many times they were cited and how they are ranked on VHB list and JIF:
# Article Author
Year
VHB
List
Citation
Scholar
JIF
1 The effect of Instagram
likes on women's social comparison and body
dissatisfaction
Sep.,2018 Not
ranked
21 3.124
(21%)
2 Self-Schema and Self-discrepancy mediate the
influence of Instagram usage on body image
satisfaction among youth
March,
2017
Not
ranked
66 4.206
(11.4%)
3 The Positive Side of Social Comparison on
Social Network Sites: How envy can drive
insoiration on Instagram
2018 Not
ranked
11 2.65 -
(39,4%)
4 Social Comparison as the thief of Joy: Emotional
Consequences of viewing Strangers' Instagram
Posts
2018 Not
ranked
35 3.502 -
(21%)
5 Social Media and Loneliness: Why an Instagram
picture may be worth more than a thousand
Twitter words
Sep 16 Not
ranked
258 3.536 -
(21%)
6 Instagram #Instasad?: Exploring Associations
Among Instagram Use, Depressive Symptoms,
Negative Social Comparison and Strangers
Followed
2015 Not
ranked
182 2.650 -
(39,4%)
7 Instagram: motives for ist use and relationship to
narcissim and contextual age
2016 Not
ranked
357 3.435 -
(21%)
2
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The digital technologies help the people more remain more connected, therefore through
social media individuals also gain the opportunity to share the content through networks. The
estimation describes that in the current year more users are adults (Pittman & Reich, 2016). The
Status Quo of the study is to understand that the image based platforms which includes “Twitter,
Instagram and Snapchat” decrease the loneliness and raise the happiness of the individual because
of offering the intimacy which are considered highly valuable for the users. The data collection was
done through adopting the mixed-design survey so that researchers can test the possibility, for
analyzing the data researchers adopt the chi-square testing method (Pittman & Reich, 2016).
Researchers describe that the various forms of media are evolving in the current year, this is
due to the reason because this leads to increasing more interaction and support the users to make
new friends by using social media networks (Pittman & Reich, 2016). It also describes that Social
media use continues to grow and is especially prevalent among young adults. It is surprising then
that, in spite of this enhanced interconnectivity, young adults may be lonelier than other age groups,
and that the current generation may be the loneliest ever. The findings of status quo describes that
by using the image-based social media the users become more satisfied as well as reduces the
loneliness of the person, further researchers also revealed that Instagram, twitter support the user by
increasing their satisfaction level, motivation and help the user to become more happy and satisfied
with life. The qualitative outcomes of the study describes that these “image-based content” helps in
improving the intimacy which are offered by the social media application to the users.
Instagram is considered the fastest social media network which is used by a number of
users globally (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). Researchers demonstrate that users spend a high number
of time by using Instagram in comparison to the other social media networks. Therefore Instagram
is an online application where users can share their photos; video and it also provides an
opportunity to the user for taking pictures. The objective of status quo is to investigate the motives
of users for using Instagram application, the research also focuses on describing the ways through
which Instagram increases the satisfaction level of the users and support them to live and think in a
more positive manner (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). Researchers revealed that according to the
assumption of the theory that is U & G theory that users remain more active and use social media
according to their needs and requirements that is based on the level of the motivation and self –
esteem accepted by the user through adopting social media applications. Researchers describe that
Instagram has become one of the growing social media applications in which large numbers of
users remain active. It is because this leads to increasing the motivation level of the users and
allows the user to remain more satisfied with their life.
In status quo researchers also describe that there is direct and positive association among
using Instagram and to maintain a high level of interpersonal interaction with the other person. The
study will get the information by taking the survey from the 239 students which are in colleges so
that they can describe the main purpose of using Instagram such as because of “creativity”,
“coolness” as well as “ surveillance” and due to various other reasons (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016).
The investigation of the study revealed that there is also a positive relationship of the users for using
Instagram for the purpose of coolness and creativity and innovation. The analysis of the data
describes that through Instagram users get motivated because of documentation and also revealed
that users get more satisfied due to remain cool and also for the reason of surveillance.
Social network sites (SNS) which includes “Instagram” facilitates the emotional experience
of the user and supports the users to remain motivated in their life. Therefore, Instagram has
influence on the well-being of the users (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). The researchers also describe that
Instagram is becoming one of the faster which is highly used for the user and enhancing the lives of
the user by raising their satisfaction level of users. The status quo focuses on describing the social
3
social media individuals also gain the opportunity to share the content through networks. The
estimation describes that in the current year more users are adults (Pittman & Reich, 2016). The
Status Quo of the study is to understand that the image based platforms which includes “Twitter,
Instagram and Snapchat” decrease the loneliness and raise the happiness of the individual because
of offering the intimacy which are considered highly valuable for the users. The data collection was
done through adopting the mixed-design survey so that researchers can test the possibility, for
analyzing the data researchers adopt the chi-square testing method (Pittman & Reich, 2016).
Researchers describe that the various forms of media are evolving in the current year, this is
due to the reason because this leads to increasing more interaction and support the users to make
new friends by using social media networks (Pittman & Reich, 2016). It also describes that Social
media use continues to grow and is especially prevalent among young adults. It is surprising then
that, in spite of this enhanced interconnectivity, young adults may be lonelier than other age groups,
and that the current generation may be the loneliest ever. The findings of status quo describes that
by using the image-based social media the users become more satisfied as well as reduces the
loneliness of the person, further researchers also revealed that Instagram, twitter support the user by
increasing their satisfaction level, motivation and help the user to become more happy and satisfied
with life. The qualitative outcomes of the study describes that these “image-based content” helps in
improving the intimacy which are offered by the social media application to the users.
Instagram is considered the fastest social media network which is used by a number of
users globally (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). Researchers demonstrate that users spend a high number
of time by using Instagram in comparison to the other social media networks. Therefore Instagram
is an online application where users can share their photos; video and it also provides an
opportunity to the user for taking pictures. The objective of status quo is to investigate the motives
of users for using Instagram application, the research also focuses on describing the ways through
which Instagram increases the satisfaction level of the users and support them to live and think in a
more positive manner (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). Researchers revealed that according to the
assumption of the theory that is U & G theory that users remain more active and use social media
according to their needs and requirements that is based on the level of the motivation and self –
esteem accepted by the user through adopting social media applications. Researchers describe that
Instagram has become one of the growing social media applications in which large numbers of
users remain active. It is because this leads to increasing the motivation level of the users and
allows the user to remain more satisfied with their life.
In status quo researchers also describe that there is direct and positive association among
using Instagram and to maintain a high level of interpersonal interaction with the other person. The
study will get the information by taking the survey from the 239 students which are in colleges so
that they can describe the main purpose of using Instagram such as because of “creativity”,
“coolness” as well as “ surveillance” and due to various other reasons (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016).
The investigation of the study revealed that there is also a positive relationship of the users for using
Instagram for the purpose of coolness and creativity and innovation. The analysis of the data
describes that through Instagram users get motivated because of documentation and also revealed
that users get more satisfied due to remain cool and also for the reason of surveillance.
Social network sites (SNS) which includes “Instagram” facilitates the emotional experience
of the user and supports the users to remain motivated in their life. Therefore, Instagram has
influence on the well-being of the users (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). The researchers also describe that
Instagram is becoming one of the faster which is highly used for the user and enhancing the lives of
the user by raising their satisfaction level of users. The status quo focuses on describing the social
3
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comparisons and relation of Instagram with the inspiration, the purpose of the research is also to
state the motivational level by using Instagram.
Researchers revealed that comparison leads in increasing the increasing the satisfaction level
of the users and also engage the individual to improve the attitudes and behavior of the users (Meier
& Schäfer, 2018). Therefore, inspiration is the complex approach which allows and supports the
users to remain self-motivated and to remain well-being, this is also considered the approach
because it supports the user to remain motivated and to achieve the state the inspiration. The study
was conducted through adopting the “structural equation modeling mediation analysis”, in this
research the sample size of the research is 385 (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). Researchers demonstrate
that Instagram increases the ability and drives the inspiration level and emotions of the user it is
because through this the user can communicate with a large number of other users and support the
individual to remain more connected. The intensity of using Instagram is more because of
considering it one of the most inspiring applications, however youngsters also use this it is due the
reason that it leads in motivating the user to live a better life.
The status quo also demonstrates that the researchers measure the social comparisons by
comparing Instagram with the other social media networks such as Facebook (Meier & Schäfer,
2018). Through the investigation it is revealed that the intensity of Instagram is far more positive it
is because of the intensity of using this application is highly related with the inspiration and
relationship. Therefore, it has positive effects on the motivation and satisfaction level of the users
and raises the well-being of users (Meier & Schäfer, 2018).
Study by Tiggeman et al. (2018) is called “The effect of Instagram likes on women’s social
comparison and body dissatisfaction” which was published in 2018 by Tiggeman, Hayden, Brown
and Veldhuis. They were examining the number of likes of Instagram photos and how they affect
the user experience and lead them to have negative emotions like dissatisfaction.
The major aim of the study was to examine the effect of the number of likes accompanying
Instagram images on body and facial dissatisfaction. The sample size was 220 female undergraduate
students at Flinders University aged between 18 and 30 years. The experimental design between-
subjects employs 2 (likes condition: low, high) × 2 (image type: thin-ideal, average). The dependent
variables were body dissatisfaction, facial dissatisfaction, and social comparison. Instagram use and
investment were tested as potential moderating variables. The researchers found out the number of
likes had no effect on state appearance comparison or body dissatisfaction, but had a positive effect
on facial dissatisfaction. Therefore, a high number of likes led to reduced facial dissatisfaction. The
research also concludes effects were not moderated by Instagram use or involvement, but women
with greater investment in likes showed more appearance comparison, likes comparison, and facial
dissatisfaction. (Tiggemann, Hayden, Brown & Veldhuise, 2018)
Self-schema and self-discrepancy mediates the influence of Instagram usage on body image
satisfaction among youth” was published by Ahazadeh, Sharif and Ong in 2016 is also worth
mentioning. They were doing research to find out if the use of Instagram has a negative effect on
body satisfaction and how self-esteem and self-discrepancy meditate the effect of instagram usage
on body satisfaction. Online survey was conducted in two private universities in Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia where 103 males and 170 females participated. Participants completed a set of
questionaires including demographic characteristics, Instagram usage and activities related to
Instagram photos.
In the status quo, the researchers show that appearance self-schema positively influences
appearance self discrepancy, and self-schema and self-discrepancy sequentially mediate the
4
state the motivational level by using Instagram.
Researchers revealed that comparison leads in increasing the increasing the satisfaction level
of the users and also engage the individual to improve the attitudes and behavior of the users (Meier
& Schäfer, 2018). Therefore, inspiration is the complex approach which allows and supports the
users to remain self-motivated and to remain well-being, this is also considered the approach
because it supports the user to remain motivated and to achieve the state the inspiration. The study
was conducted through adopting the “structural equation modeling mediation analysis”, in this
research the sample size of the research is 385 (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). Researchers demonstrate
that Instagram increases the ability and drives the inspiration level and emotions of the user it is
because through this the user can communicate with a large number of other users and support the
individual to remain more connected. The intensity of using Instagram is more because of
considering it one of the most inspiring applications, however youngsters also use this it is due the
reason that it leads in motivating the user to live a better life.
The status quo also demonstrates that the researchers measure the social comparisons by
comparing Instagram with the other social media networks such as Facebook (Meier & Schäfer,
2018). Through the investigation it is revealed that the intensity of Instagram is far more positive it
is because of the intensity of using this application is highly related with the inspiration and
relationship. Therefore, it has positive effects on the motivation and satisfaction level of the users
and raises the well-being of users (Meier & Schäfer, 2018).
Study by Tiggeman et al. (2018) is called “The effect of Instagram likes on women’s social
comparison and body dissatisfaction” which was published in 2018 by Tiggeman, Hayden, Brown
and Veldhuis. They were examining the number of likes of Instagram photos and how they affect
the user experience and lead them to have negative emotions like dissatisfaction.
The major aim of the study was to examine the effect of the number of likes accompanying
Instagram images on body and facial dissatisfaction. The sample size was 220 female undergraduate
students at Flinders University aged between 18 and 30 years. The experimental design between-
subjects employs 2 (likes condition: low, high) × 2 (image type: thin-ideal, average). The dependent
variables were body dissatisfaction, facial dissatisfaction, and social comparison. Instagram use and
investment were tested as potential moderating variables. The researchers found out the number of
likes had no effect on state appearance comparison or body dissatisfaction, but had a positive effect
on facial dissatisfaction. Therefore, a high number of likes led to reduced facial dissatisfaction. The
research also concludes effects were not moderated by Instagram use or involvement, but women
with greater investment in likes showed more appearance comparison, likes comparison, and facial
dissatisfaction. (Tiggemann, Hayden, Brown & Veldhuise, 2018)
Self-schema and self-discrepancy mediates the influence of Instagram usage on body image
satisfaction among youth” was published by Ahazadeh, Sharif and Ong in 2016 is also worth
mentioning. They were doing research to find out if the use of Instagram has a negative effect on
body satisfaction and how self-esteem and self-discrepancy meditate the effect of instagram usage
on body satisfaction. Online survey was conducted in two private universities in Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia where 103 males and 170 females participated. Participants completed a set of
questionaires including demographic characteristics, Instagram usage and activities related to
Instagram photos.
In the status quo, the researchers show that appearance self-schema positively influences
appearance self discrepancy, and self-schema and self-discrepancy sequentially mediate the
4
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negative influence of Instagram photo usage on body satisfaction. (Ahadzadeh, Sharif & Ong,
2017)
The pervasive use of social media is a great concern of modern psychologists. Another
study is “Social Comparison as the Thief of Joy: Emotional Consequences of Viewing Strangers’
Instagram Posts” by Vries et al which was published in 2017. In an experiment, they were
investigating the emotional consequences of viewing strangers’ posts on instagram. The experiment
has shown that individual differences and processing tendencies lead people to respond to social
information on social media in opposite ways. 130 participants who received course credit or 5
euros as compensation for their participation. Participants were asked to take a photograph of
themselves with a smartphone and to post it on Instagram after they had viewed positive, neutral, or
selfies by strangers.
The status quo suggests that strangers’ positive Instagram posts decreased positive affect
among individuals with high levels of social comparison orientation, but increased positive affect
among individuals with low levels of social comparison orientation.
As the use and influence of social networking continues to grow, consequences for
psychological well-being has been studied by many researchers. Instagram #Instasad?: Exploring
Associations Among Instagram Use, Depressive Symptoms, Negative Social Comparison and
Strangers Followed was published by Trub and, Rosenthal in 2015. The study examined theatrical
grounded moderated mediation models of the associations between instagram use and depressive
symptoms through the mechanism of negative social comparison and moderation by the amount of
strangers one follows. The final sample was comprised of 117 participants who completed all
measures of interest.
In the status quo, researchers conclude more frequent Instagram use had a marginally
significant direct association with greater depressive symptoms. Contrary to the hypotheses, more
frequent Instagram use was not associated with social comparison. Finally, consistent with the
hypotheses as well as past research on Facebook, more positive social comparison was associated
with less depressive symptoms. (Trub & Rosenthal, 2015)
Overall all these studies were highly relevant to our aims and research. They showed that
studies had social variables as decisive determinants. At the end of the search we decided to select
the best 7 studies in order not to enlarge the study to a wider scope and focus only on the main aims
of our study. In summary, most of the studies show strong support for the negative impact of social
comparison on Instagram users. To date, little study has focused on the association between social
comparison and both positive and negative emotions of users. Not only loneliness and depression
are the sole consequence of social comparison, motivation that leads to positive influence on
Instagram users also needs to be taken into consideration. This study will shed light on how social
comparison increases or decreases self-evaluation that affects their future intentions.
5
2017)
The pervasive use of social media is a great concern of modern psychologists. Another
study is “Social Comparison as the Thief of Joy: Emotional Consequences of Viewing Strangers’
Instagram Posts” by Vries et al which was published in 2017. In an experiment, they were
investigating the emotional consequences of viewing strangers’ posts on instagram. The experiment
has shown that individual differences and processing tendencies lead people to respond to social
information on social media in opposite ways. 130 participants who received course credit or 5
euros as compensation for their participation. Participants were asked to take a photograph of
themselves with a smartphone and to post it on Instagram after they had viewed positive, neutral, or
selfies by strangers.
The status quo suggests that strangers’ positive Instagram posts decreased positive affect
among individuals with high levels of social comparison orientation, but increased positive affect
among individuals with low levels of social comparison orientation.
As the use and influence of social networking continues to grow, consequences for
psychological well-being has been studied by many researchers. Instagram #Instasad?: Exploring
Associations Among Instagram Use, Depressive Symptoms, Negative Social Comparison and
Strangers Followed was published by Trub and, Rosenthal in 2015. The study examined theatrical
grounded moderated mediation models of the associations between instagram use and depressive
symptoms through the mechanism of negative social comparison and moderation by the amount of
strangers one follows. The final sample was comprised of 117 participants who completed all
measures of interest.
In the status quo, researchers conclude more frequent Instagram use had a marginally
significant direct association with greater depressive symptoms. Contrary to the hypotheses, more
frequent Instagram use was not associated with social comparison. Finally, consistent with the
hypotheses as well as past research on Facebook, more positive social comparison was associated
with less depressive symptoms. (Trub & Rosenthal, 2015)
Overall all these studies were highly relevant to our aims and research. They showed that
studies had social variables as decisive determinants. At the end of the search we decided to select
the best 7 studies in order not to enlarge the study to a wider scope and focus only on the main aims
of our study. In summary, most of the studies show strong support for the negative impact of social
comparison on Instagram users. To date, little study has focused on the association between social
comparison and both positive and negative emotions of users. Not only loneliness and depression
are the sole consequence of social comparison, motivation that leads to positive influence on
Instagram users also needs to be taken into consideration. This study will shed light on how social
comparison increases or decreases self-evaluation that affects their future intentions.
5
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3. Qualitative Study
In this research, we used the mixed method approaches which is a blend or combination of both
the qualitative and quantitative methods (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010). The aim of mixing these
two methods was to better understand the problem, obtain the required data that answer the research
questions about instagram and its effect on an individual’s self- evaluation (Hesse-Biber & Leavy,
2010). In the qualitative method, the data was collected through conducting an interview and the
findings were coded and analyzed thematically while the data in the quantitative study was
collected through using questionnaires and the findings were analyzed through regression, EFA and
ANOVA (see figure 1). As shown below in figure 1, we started with the qualitative method and
then we adopted the quantitative to “eliminate potential design weaknesses” and to provide validity
to the results that we found out and discussed in the first method (Johnson et al. 2007, p.127).
Figure 1: Research Design (own figure)
3.1. Method
At the beginning of our study, we adopted the qualitative method because we wanted to have a
detailed understanding about the problem of the research, and this was established through
“allowing the participants to tell their stories” and express their attitudes and feelings openly in the
in-depth interview about Instagram (Creswell & Poth, 2018, p.48). The qualitative study involved
data collection methods and tools, sample selection method and content analysis. In the following
subsections, we will provide information about the processes and steps that we followed in both the
data collection tools and content analysis of the qualitative data.
6
In this research, we used the mixed method approaches which is a blend or combination of both
the qualitative and quantitative methods (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010). The aim of mixing these
two methods was to better understand the problem, obtain the required data that answer the research
questions about instagram and its effect on an individual’s self- evaluation (Hesse-Biber & Leavy,
2010). In the qualitative method, the data was collected through conducting an interview and the
findings were coded and analyzed thematically while the data in the quantitative study was
collected through using questionnaires and the findings were analyzed through regression, EFA and
ANOVA (see figure 1). As shown below in figure 1, we started with the qualitative method and
then we adopted the quantitative to “eliminate potential design weaknesses” and to provide validity
to the results that we found out and discussed in the first method (Johnson et al. 2007, p.127).
Figure 1: Research Design (own figure)
3.1. Method
At the beginning of our study, we adopted the qualitative method because we wanted to have a
detailed understanding about the problem of the research, and this was established through
“allowing the participants to tell their stories” and express their attitudes and feelings openly in the
in-depth interview about Instagram (Creswell & Poth, 2018, p.48). The qualitative study involved
data collection methods and tools, sample selection method and content analysis. In the following
subsections, we will provide information about the processes and steps that we followed in both the
data collection tools and content analysis of the qualitative data.
6
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3.1.1. Interview
Interview is one of the qualitative techniques and methods used in market research to “better
understand the complex patterns of human behaviour” (Jobber & Chadwick, 2012, p.235). Thus, to
better obtain insights about instagram and its effect on an individual’s self-evaluation, and to
explore more about their “feelings, attitudes and behaviors” in line with this problem, we conducted
an open interview with the sample that is better described in section 3.2. (Bellenger et al., 2011,
p.7). Before conducting the interview, we decided to design a guideline to direct us on how to start
the interview, what to ask, in what sequence, and how to end the interview. To create a good
guideline and to follow the structure and process used in other researches, we reviewed and used
two literary resources on this basis: “Research interviewing: The range of techniques: A practical
Guide” by Gillham (2005) and “Conducting an-in depth interview” by Guion et al.,(2011) (see
references). The format of the guideline in terms of the sample, content and questions were
determined by the aims of the study. At the beginning, we created a drafted guideline where we
identified the profile of the sample with whom we would conduct the interview, the content for its
introduction and ending, the types of questions that we should ask and the expected duration for
conducting it. Then the guideline was revised by the supervisor, who recommended to delete some
questions that were repetitive and not relevant to the aims of the study. Based on the feedback of the
supervisor, we did the required changes and decided to test it before implementation. The interview
guideline starts with an introduction where the interviewee is thanked for his/her participation and
the interviewer introduces himself/herself to the interviewee. We also refer in the introduction to the
topic of our research, and the expected duration required for conducting the interview. Then we ask
for permission to record the interview and assure the interviewee about the anonymity of his/her
identity.
The interview guideline starts with demographic questions such as name, age, occupation and
gender. After asking the demographic questions, we move to the general questions about Instagram
such as: how often does the interviewee use instagram? What does he/she usually post on
instagram? What is the difference between Instagram and other platforms? What is the motive of
using instagram than other social media platforms?(see the attachment). Following that, the
interviewee is asked detailed questions about Instagram such as: how many followers/following
does the interviewee have? What is his/her feeling when he/she has lots of followers? and other
detailed questions that are related to this problem (see the attachment). The interview ends by
asking the interviewee if he/she has any questions regarding the interview and at the end we thank
him/ her for his/her contribution. After completing the guideline, we decided to conduct a pre-test
7
Interview is one of the qualitative techniques and methods used in market research to “better
understand the complex patterns of human behaviour” (Jobber & Chadwick, 2012, p.235). Thus, to
better obtain insights about instagram and its effect on an individual’s self-evaluation, and to
explore more about their “feelings, attitudes and behaviors” in line with this problem, we conducted
an open interview with the sample that is better described in section 3.2. (Bellenger et al., 2011,
p.7). Before conducting the interview, we decided to design a guideline to direct us on how to start
the interview, what to ask, in what sequence, and how to end the interview. To create a good
guideline and to follow the structure and process used in other researches, we reviewed and used
two literary resources on this basis: “Research interviewing: The range of techniques: A practical
Guide” by Gillham (2005) and “Conducting an-in depth interview” by Guion et al.,(2011) (see
references). The format of the guideline in terms of the sample, content and questions were
determined by the aims of the study. At the beginning, we created a drafted guideline where we
identified the profile of the sample with whom we would conduct the interview, the content for its
introduction and ending, the types of questions that we should ask and the expected duration for
conducting it. Then the guideline was revised by the supervisor, who recommended to delete some
questions that were repetitive and not relevant to the aims of the study. Based on the feedback of the
supervisor, we did the required changes and decided to test it before implementation. The interview
guideline starts with an introduction where the interviewee is thanked for his/her participation and
the interviewer introduces himself/herself to the interviewee. We also refer in the introduction to the
topic of our research, and the expected duration required for conducting the interview. Then we ask
for permission to record the interview and assure the interviewee about the anonymity of his/her
identity.
The interview guideline starts with demographic questions such as name, age, occupation and
gender. After asking the demographic questions, we move to the general questions about Instagram
such as: how often does the interviewee use instagram? What does he/she usually post on
instagram? What is the difference between Instagram and other platforms? What is the motive of
using instagram than other social media platforms?(see the attachment). Following that, the
interviewee is asked detailed questions about Instagram such as: how many followers/following
does the interviewee have? What is his/her feeling when he/she has lots of followers? and other
detailed questions that are related to this problem (see the attachment). The interview ends by
asking the interviewee if he/she has any questions regarding the interview and at the end we thank
him/ her for his/her contribution. After completing the guideline, we decided to conduct a pre-test
7
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interview to make sure that the questions are quite clear and understood by the participants, and to
check about the sequence of the questions and duration of the interview. Moreover, we wanted to
identify any problems or mistakes and sort them out before conducting an interview with the real
sample. The guideline was tested with a student from HMKW and after conducting the interview
we found out that no changes were required and it was good enough to be used with the real sample
(see the attachment).
3.1.2. Content Analysis
After conducting the interview and completing the transcriptions of all interviews, we worked on
the process of analyzing the content of the qualitative data.To know about the process and steps for
content analysis, we used two literary resources that provide a comprehensive look on this topic.
The first literary resource were the lecture’s notes on market research by Thomas Killian (2019) and
the second one was a journal called “The qualitative content analysis process” by by Elo & Kyngas
(2008). It is also important to point out that we used a software called QDA Miner Lite V2.07 for
coding the transcriptions and creating the coding book of this study. The figure below shows how
we did the coding and content analysis starting from the step of identifying the categories and
ending with the models that were built for this study (see figure 2). In the first cycle of this process,
we went through the first case of our transcripted interviews and highlighted the most important
words, phrases, sentences that express different feelings and opinions of the interviewees and that
are potentially relevant to the main purpose of the study. Thereby, we started with the first
transcription and we came up with different themes under which all these highlighted words,
phrases and sentences appear and created categories and subcategories for all these themes. The
naming of some categorie and themes was derived from the theories and empirical studies that are
used in our research. We used our own naming for some other categories because we could not find
any references to them in the literature review. For example, the naming of social comparison
category was basically derived from the theory of social comparison that was published by
Festinger in 1954. The naming of some themes such as inspiration, narcissism, envy, community,
emotions were derived from those studies that were used in this research and we used our own
naming for other themes such as routines, greed, carelessness based on our interpretation. After
naming the categories, we started to group the themes that are similar and related to each other
under one category and sub-category. For example, we grouped the themes of envy, admiration,
positive and negative influences under the category of social comparison because we observed that
they are related to each other and both reflect the outcome from comparison with others (see section
8
check about the sequence of the questions and duration of the interview. Moreover, we wanted to
identify any problems or mistakes and sort them out before conducting an interview with the real
sample. The guideline was tested with a student from HMKW and after conducting the interview
we found out that no changes were required and it was good enough to be used with the real sample
(see the attachment).
3.1.2. Content Analysis
After conducting the interview and completing the transcriptions of all interviews, we worked on
the process of analyzing the content of the qualitative data.To know about the process and steps for
content analysis, we used two literary resources that provide a comprehensive look on this topic.
The first literary resource were the lecture’s notes on market research by Thomas Killian (2019) and
the second one was a journal called “The qualitative content analysis process” by by Elo & Kyngas
(2008). It is also important to point out that we used a software called QDA Miner Lite V2.07 for
coding the transcriptions and creating the coding book of this study. The figure below shows how
we did the coding and content analysis starting from the step of identifying the categories and
ending with the models that were built for this study (see figure 2). In the first cycle of this process,
we went through the first case of our transcripted interviews and highlighted the most important
words, phrases, sentences that express different feelings and opinions of the interviewees and that
are potentially relevant to the main purpose of the study. Thereby, we started with the first
transcription and we came up with different themes under which all these highlighted words,
phrases and sentences appear and created categories and subcategories for all these themes. The
naming of some categorie and themes was derived from the theories and empirical studies that are
used in our research. We used our own naming for some other categories because we could not find
any references to them in the literature review. For example, the naming of social comparison
category was basically derived from the theory of social comparison that was published by
Festinger in 1954. The naming of some themes such as inspiration, narcissism, envy, community,
emotions were derived from those studies that were used in this research and we used our own
naming for other themes such as routines, greed, carelessness based on our interpretation. After
naming the categories, we started to group the themes that are similar and related to each other
under one category and sub-category. For example, we grouped the themes of envy, admiration,
positive and negative influences under the category of social comparison because we observed that
they are related to each other and both reflect the outcome from comparison with others (see section
8
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3.3.2). We followed the same coding process in the first cycle with all the other cases and then
adding one case after another to the coding book. After completing all cases, we started the second
cycle of this process which was merging the similar categories into one and creating a coding book
for this study. In section 3.3., we will highlight the most important categories that we extracted in
this study and how they are considered as determinants and consequences. Based on the coding
book and the literature reviews referred to in chapter 2, section 2.3., we constructed the models of
our qualitative study that are better discussed in section 3.4. and well presented in figure 4 in that
section.
Figure 2: Coding Process (adapted from Killian, 2019)
3.2. Data Collection and Sample
As mentioned in the previous section, we started our research with the qualitative method. The
basic benefit of a qualitative study was the opportunity to get in depth answers from the
participants, establish and understand their attitudes, behaviors and opinions in a better way (Jobber
& Chadwick, 2012). Thus, the selection of the appropriate sample was an essential step and element
in the qualitative method as it was very important to collect data from participants from whom we
can learn the most and better understand the meaning of a phenomenon from their perspectives
(Merriam & Grenier, 2002). As we did not need a representative sample of the population, a
9
adding one case after another to the coding book. After completing all cases, we started the second
cycle of this process which was merging the similar categories into one and creating a coding book
for this study. In section 3.3., we will highlight the most important categories that we extracted in
this study and how they are considered as determinants and consequences. Based on the coding
book and the literature reviews referred to in chapter 2, section 2.3., we constructed the models of
our qualitative study that are better discussed in section 3.4. and well presented in figure 4 in that
section.
Figure 2: Coding Process (adapted from Killian, 2019)
3.2. Data Collection and Sample
As mentioned in the previous section, we started our research with the qualitative method. The
basic benefit of a qualitative study was the opportunity to get in depth answers from the
participants, establish and understand their attitudes, behaviors and opinions in a better way (Jobber
& Chadwick, 2012). Thus, the selection of the appropriate sample was an essential step and element
in the qualitative method as it was very important to collect data from participants from whom we
can learn the most and better understand the meaning of a phenomenon from their perspectives
(Merriam & Grenier, 2002). As we did not need a representative sample of the population, a
9
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convenience sample technique is used to collect the data for this study. Convenience sample is “the
least rigorous technique, involving the selection of the most accessible subjects” (Marshall, 1996,
p.523). The participants involved in this study were readily available and selected randomly; they
are people from different nationalities, occupations and aged between (21-30) years old and are
identified as active instagram users. In the following figure, it is depicted how the participants were
selected and how the sample was utilized in this study:
Figure 3: Data Collection Process (Own Figure)
The study is basically designed to have ten good interviews at the end and thereby the work was
distributed among the team members to conduct the interview with the sample. Two team members
were responsible for interviewing and transcribing six interviews, three each while two other
members were responsible for conducting and transcribing four interviews, two each. To attain
good results, it was decided that each member should conduct more than the required number of
interviews and select the best ones that serve the aims of our research. To check the clarity of the
questions, the timing needed for conducting the interview and to know whether the questions of the
interview are appropriate, we conducted a pre-test interview before starting with the main
interviews.The pre-test interview was participant number eight as shown in table 1, and the
10
least rigorous technique, involving the selection of the most accessible subjects” (Marshall, 1996,
p.523). The participants involved in this study were readily available and selected randomly; they
are people from different nationalities, occupations and aged between (21-30) years old and are
identified as active instagram users. In the following figure, it is depicted how the participants were
selected and how the sample was utilized in this study:
Figure 3: Data Collection Process (Own Figure)
The study is basically designed to have ten good interviews at the end and thereby the work was
distributed among the team members to conduct the interview with the sample. Two team members
were responsible for interviewing and transcribing six interviews, three each while two other
members were responsible for conducting and transcribing four interviews, two each. To attain
good results, it was decided that each member should conduct more than the required number of
interviews and select the best ones that serve the aims of our research. To check the clarity of the
questions, the timing needed for conducting the interview and to know whether the questions of the
interview are appropriate, we conducted a pre-test interview before starting with the main
interviews.The pre-test interview was participant number eight as shown in table 1, and the
10
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interview was conducted in one of the lecture rooms at HMKW university and lasted for (00:26:44
hr). Due to the feedback of the pre-test participant and the supervisor, no changes were required to
be done on the interview guide and hence it was decided to use the pre-test participant in our
sample. Once the interviews were confirmed with the participants, times were set up to do the
interviews. The team members started to conduct the interview with their interviewees in locations
and online channels that were convenient for them: in person, by phone, or by Skype. 15 interviews
were conducted and transcribed and at the end only ten were selected and used in this study. The
gender of the sample was equally distributed with five males and five females, aged ranged between
(21-30). The sample was culturally very diverse with participants from different countries such as
Germany, Brazil, Turkey, Morocco, India, Vietnam, Canada, Columbia, and Nigeria (See table 1).
The below table provides the description of the sample used in this study:
Table1: Sample description
3.3. Result
3.3.1. Overview
As discussed in section 3.2., ten good in-depth interviews with participants from varied cultures,
ages, genders were selected to be used for this study. After analyzing the content for the selected
transcribed interviews and creating the coding book, we extracted categories that are considered as
important findings in this study. Some categories like motivations, social comparison, platform
characteristics, habits, personality and frequency usage were identified as determinants while other
11
hr). Due to the feedback of the pre-test participant and the supervisor, no changes were required to
be done on the interview guide and hence it was decided to use the pre-test participant in our
sample. Once the interviews were confirmed with the participants, times were set up to do the
interviews. The team members started to conduct the interview with their interviewees in locations
and online channels that were convenient for them: in person, by phone, or by Skype. 15 interviews
were conducted and transcribed and at the end only ten were selected and used in this study. The
gender of the sample was equally distributed with five males and five females, aged ranged between
(21-30). The sample was culturally very diverse with participants from different countries such as
Germany, Brazil, Turkey, Morocco, India, Vietnam, Canada, Columbia, and Nigeria (See table 1).
The below table provides the description of the sample used in this study:
Table1: Sample description
3.3. Result
3.3.1. Overview
As discussed in section 3.2., ten good in-depth interviews with participants from varied cultures,
ages, genders were selected to be used for this study. After analyzing the content for the selected
transcribed interviews and creating the coding book, we extracted categories that are considered as
important findings in this study. Some categories like motivations, social comparison, platform
characteristics, habits, personality and frequency usage were identified as determinants while other
11
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categories like emotions, future intentions, influence of followers and expected behavior after
posting were identified as the consequences. Based on the aims of our research, we will highlight
the findings in the following subsections with examples in line with the major determinants and
consequences that we extracted and the themes that were grouped under each one of them. We will
also provide an overview of other determinants and consequences that are identified as minor
categories in this study.
3.3.2. Determinants
In this subsection, first we will refer to the major determinants as well as presenting the themes,
descriptions, examples and usage frequency that come in line with each of these determinants. The
first determinant that we extracted was the motivation for using instagram and spending more time
on this platform (see table 2). There are many definitions by researchers for the concept of
motivation. Donald Hebb (1955) refers to it as “a general sense to the energizing of behavior, and
especially to the sources of energy in a particular set of responses that keep them temporarily
dominant over others and account for continuity and direction in behavior” (p.244). As shown
below in table 2, some motivations such as community, inspiration, curiosity, narcissism, and
information have a higher frequency than entertainment and encouragement. In this study, these
categories are categorized as external or internal based on the different reasons or goals that arise
such behavior or action. Internal motivation is defined as doing an activity for the purpose of
inherent satisfactions while external motivation refers to doing an activity for the purpose of
enjoying the activity itself rather than its inherent value (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Our findings show
that some participants are seeking for external motivation such as community, and encouragement
from other users through the likes and comments on their posts while others use instagram to satisfy
their internal needs such as curiosity, inspiration, narcissism, entertainment and information (see
table 2). Among those internal and external factors, community is the highest one in frequency
while encouragement is the lowest one (see table 2). We will illustrate with example those
motivations that are most essential and most related to the aim of this study such as community,
inspiration, narcissism, information and curiosity. Based on the frequency shown in the table below
for all motivations, community seems to be the most primary reason and motivation for using
instagram (see table 2). To give an example is the reply from one of the participants who stated:
“you have your friends and also you can connect to other people..”(see table 2). This shows that
instagram is seen as a forum where the participant can make connections with friends and others,
interact with them and maintain friendship. Inspiration is another motivation for the participants to
use instagram and this is clearly identified in a statement by one of the participants:“I follow people
12
posting were identified as the consequences. Based on the aims of our research, we will highlight
the findings in the following subsections with examples in line with the major determinants and
consequences that we extracted and the themes that were grouped under each one of them. We will
also provide an overview of other determinants and consequences that are identified as minor
categories in this study.
3.3.2. Determinants
In this subsection, first we will refer to the major determinants as well as presenting the themes,
descriptions, examples and usage frequency that come in line with each of these determinants. The
first determinant that we extracted was the motivation for using instagram and spending more time
on this platform (see table 2). There are many definitions by researchers for the concept of
motivation. Donald Hebb (1955) refers to it as “a general sense to the energizing of behavior, and
especially to the sources of energy in a particular set of responses that keep them temporarily
dominant over others and account for continuity and direction in behavior” (p.244). As shown
below in table 2, some motivations such as community, inspiration, curiosity, narcissism, and
information have a higher frequency than entertainment and encouragement. In this study, these
categories are categorized as external or internal based on the different reasons or goals that arise
such behavior or action. Internal motivation is defined as doing an activity for the purpose of
inherent satisfactions while external motivation refers to doing an activity for the purpose of
enjoying the activity itself rather than its inherent value (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Our findings show
that some participants are seeking for external motivation such as community, and encouragement
from other users through the likes and comments on their posts while others use instagram to satisfy
their internal needs such as curiosity, inspiration, narcissism, entertainment and information (see
table 2). Among those internal and external factors, community is the highest one in frequency
while encouragement is the lowest one (see table 2). We will illustrate with example those
motivations that are most essential and most related to the aim of this study such as community,
inspiration, narcissism, information and curiosity. Based on the frequency shown in the table below
for all motivations, community seems to be the most primary reason and motivation for using
instagram (see table 2). To give an example is the reply from one of the participants who stated:
“you have your friends and also you can connect to other people..”(see table 2). This shows that
instagram is seen as a forum where the participant can make connections with friends and others,
interact with them and maintain friendship. Inspiration is another motivation for the participants to
use instagram and this is clearly identified in a statement by one of the participants:“I follow people
12
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that I’m inspired by” (see table 2). This statement indicates that the participant is following some
people on instagram to gain inspiration and explore new interesting ideas through them. Curiosity
and knowing about people’s life is a nother motivation for using instagram. For example, this
statement: “I just need to know things about people whom I know” shows that the reason of this
participant for using instagram is to seek knowledge and know what other people are doing (see
table 2). Another important motivation to point out is narcissism and how posting on instagram
feeds the sense of self-perfection and self-flattery of those participants. For example, this statement
“He or she is interested in seeing my stories or postings” shows that the participant feels admired,
unique and special when followers view his/her posts on instagram (see table 2). The last essential
motivation to point out is information and how the participants use instagram to gain knowledge
about the life of celebrities whom they are following. For example, this statement: “I want to know
about their daily life because they tend to post daily life on instagram” shows that the platform is
used as a source for seeking information about celebrities who document every moment of their
lives through their daily posts and stories on instagram (see table 2). Although entertainment and
encouragement are among the motivations that are identified in the results, we did not refer to them
in detail because they are not so important and related to the aims of our study as the others (see
table 2). The table below presents the different motivations, their descriptions, frequency,
categorization with an example per each:
Table 2: Motivation Determinant
The second determinant that we extracted in this study is social comparison. Social comparison
occurs when individuals compare themselves, their abilities or their experiences with those of others
13
people on instagram to gain inspiration and explore new interesting ideas through them. Curiosity
and knowing about people’s life is a nother motivation for using instagram. For example, this
statement: “I just need to know things about people whom I know” shows that the reason of this
participant for using instagram is to seek knowledge and know what other people are doing (see
table 2). Another important motivation to point out is narcissism and how posting on instagram
feeds the sense of self-perfection and self-flattery of those participants. For example, this statement
“He or she is interested in seeing my stories or postings” shows that the participant feels admired,
unique and special when followers view his/her posts on instagram (see table 2). The last essential
motivation to point out is information and how the participants use instagram to gain knowledge
about the life of celebrities whom they are following. For example, this statement: “I want to know
about their daily life because they tend to post daily life on instagram” shows that the platform is
used as a source for seeking information about celebrities who document every moment of their
lives through their daily posts and stories on instagram (see table 2). Although entertainment and
encouragement are among the motivations that are identified in the results, we did not refer to them
in detail because they are not so important and related to the aims of our study as the others (see
table 2). The table below presents the different motivations, their descriptions, frequency,
categorization with an example per each:
Table 2: Motivation Determinant
The second determinant that we extracted in this study is social comparison. Social comparison
occurs when individuals compare themselves, their abilities or their experiences with those of others
13
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(Festinger, 1954). Joanne V. Wood (1996) defined social comparison as the process of observing or
looking for similarities, differences, or both in certain aspects between other people and the self (see
references). In identifying this determinant and exploring what effect it has on the participants who
look at others on instagram with a lot of likes and followers, we found out that comparing
themselves socially with others can have both positive and negative outcomes. As shown in the
table, the outcome of admiration has a frequency of seven, which is higher than the other outcomes
(see table 3). To give an example is the response of a participant who is showing admiration to one
of the celebrities she is following on instagram by stating: “ I am following Jennifer Lopez and I
lovvvvvvve the way she is living …”(see table 3). It is clear that looking at a celebrity with lots of
followers makes the participant observe the differences between their lives and thereby it makes her
admire the celebrity and the way she is living. A positive influence is another theme that is grouped
under the category of social comparison. For example, this statement: “It encourages to work hard,
to work out, to take care of my food” shows that looking at the posts of that celebrity inspires her to
work out on her current self and transcend to that level of life (see table 3). Envy is another feeling
caused by the comparison with people who have lots of likes and followers. While looking at a post
of friends or celebrities with a lot of likes, one of the participants expresses unpleasant feelings
characterized with envy through stating: “It is too much of a world I couldn't reach” (see table 3).
Negative influence also occurs when the participants are exposed to the posts of others with lots of
likes and this is obvious in a statement by one of the participants:“Why do they have so many
clicks? Did everyone on earth like their photo? And that’s a bit strange”(see table 3). These last
statements show that looking at the posts of celebrities and friends with lots of likes makes them
have a feeling of envy and not being able to reach the same level of such people as their lives and
worlds are quite different. The table below presents the category of social comparison with the
description, frequency and example per each theme that is grouped under it:
Table 3: Social Comparison Determinant
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looking for similarities, differences, or both in certain aspects between other people and the self (see
references). In identifying this determinant and exploring what effect it has on the participants who
look at others on instagram with a lot of likes and followers, we found out that comparing
themselves socially with others can have both positive and negative outcomes. As shown in the
table, the outcome of admiration has a frequency of seven, which is higher than the other outcomes
(see table 3). To give an example is the response of a participant who is showing admiration to one
of the celebrities she is following on instagram by stating: “ I am following Jennifer Lopez and I
lovvvvvvve the way she is living …”(see table 3). It is clear that looking at a celebrity with lots of
followers makes the participant observe the differences between their lives and thereby it makes her
admire the celebrity and the way she is living. A positive influence is another theme that is grouped
under the category of social comparison. For example, this statement: “It encourages to work hard,
to work out, to take care of my food” shows that looking at the posts of that celebrity inspires her to
work out on her current self and transcend to that level of life (see table 3). Envy is another feeling
caused by the comparison with people who have lots of likes and followers. While looking at a post
of friends or celebrities with a lot of likes, one of the participants expresses unpleasant feelings
characterized with envy through stating: “It is too much of a world I couldn't reach” (see table 3).
Negative influence also occurs when the participants are exposed to the posts of others with lots of
likes and this is obvious in a statement by one of the participants:“Why do they have so many
clicks? Did everyone on earth like their photo? And that’s a bit strange”(see table 3). These last
statements show that looking at the posts of celebrities and friends with lots of likes makes them
have a feeling of envy and not being able to reach the same level of such people as their lives and
worlds are quite different. The table below presents the category of social comparison with the
description, frequency and example per each theme that is grouped under it:
Table 3: Social Comparison Determinant
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It is important to give an overview of the minor determinants that also occurred in this study. While
coding the transcribed interviews, we extracted these minor determinants that are categorized in this
study as habits, platform characteristics, personality and frequency of usage . The determinant of
habits in line with media consumption is defined as “a form of automaticity in media consumption
that develops as people repeat media consumption behavior in stable circumstances” (LaRose,
2010, p.194). As shown in table 6, habits in line with using instagram are identified in terms of the
participants′ daily usage, their hashtag usage, posting stories and routine (see appendix). The second
minor determinant was the platform characteristics and this refers to the features that instagram has
and differentiates it from other platforms. As shown in table 7, the participants pointed out five
characteristics of instagram: function, easy usage, image based, focused and data protection (see
appendix). The function and easy usage of instagram were higher in frequency than the others, and
this shows that the complexity of instagram is low and the participants are attracted to it due to its
function and ease of use. The third determinant was frequency of usage and how actively the
participants are engaging with instagram. As shown in table 8, there were only daily and irregular
usage that are grouped under frequency of usage category and daily was higher in frequency than
irregular usage (see appendix). The fourth minor determinant was the personality of the participants
who are identified based on their answers as careless, self-confident, curious, shy and optimistic.
According to Guilford (1959), personality is defined as “the individual’s unique pattern of traits ”(p.
5). As shown in table 9, the personality of being careless was higher than the others; it has a
frequency of 14 (see appendix). Having these determinants, it is also prominent to look at the
categories in the following subsection that are identified in this study as consequences.
3.3.3. Consequences
In this subsection, we will present the major and minor consequences as well as the themes,
descriptions, examples and usage frequency that come along them. The first major category that is
extracted and identified as a consequence is emotions, in both its positive and negative dimensions.
Emotion is defined as a feeling state or response system that motivates and organizes cognition and
action of the person experiencing it (Izard, 2010). There are two themes in emotions: positive and
negative and they are experienced by the participants based on the feedback they receive on their
posts from their followers. As you can see below in table 4, positive emotions such as happy,
feeling good, excited and others positive expressions has a frequency of 30, which was higher than
negative emotions. For instance, one of the participants states: “it makes me happy if I get a lot of
likes” and this indicates that the attention the participant receives from the followers through their
positive feedback makes the participant feel happy and gives her a sense of satisfaction (see table
15
coding the transcribed interviews, we extracted these minor determinants that are categorized in this
study as habits, platform characteristics, personality and frequency of usage . The determinant of
habits in line with media consumption is defined as “a form of automaticity in media consumption
that develops as people repeat media consumption behavior in stable circumstances” (LaRose,
2010, p.194). As shown in table 6, habits in line with using instagram are identified in terms of the
participants′ daily usage, their hashtag usage, posting stories and routine (see appendix). The second
minor determinant was the platform characteristics and this refers to the features that instagram has
and differentiates it from other platforms. As shown in table 7, the participants pointed out five
characteristics of instagram: function, easy usage, image based, focused and data protection (see
appendix). The function and easy usage of instagram were higher in frequency than the others, and
this shows that the complexity of instagram is low and the participants are attracted to it due to its
function and ease of use. The third determinant was frequency of usage and how actively the
participants are engaging with instagram. As shown in table 8, there were only daily and irregular
usage that are grouped under frequency of usage category and daily was higher in frequency than
irregular usage (see appendix). The fourth minor determinant was the personality of the participants
who are identified based on their answers as careless, self-confident, curious, shy and optimistic.
According to Guilford (1959), personality is defined as “the individual’s unique pattern of traits ”(p.
5). As shown in table 9, the personality of being careless was higher than the others; it has a
frequency of 14 (see appendix). Having these determinants, it is also prominent to look at the
categories in the following subsection that are identified in this study as consequences.
3.3.3. Consequences
In this subsection, we will present the major and minor consequences as well as the themes,
descriptions, examples and usage frequency that come along them. The first major category that is
extracted and identified as a consequence is emotions, in both its positive and negative dimensions.
Emotion is defined as a feeling state or response system that motivates and organizes cognition and
action of the person experiencing it (Izard, 2010). There are two themes in emotions: positive and
negative and they are experienced by the participants based on the feedback they receive on their
posts from their followers. As you can see below in table 4, positive emotions such as happy,
feeling good, excited and others positive expressions has a frequency of 30, which was higher than
negative emotions. For instance, one of the participants states: “it makes me happy if I get a lot of
likes” and this indicates that the attention the participant receives from the followers through their
positive feedback makes the participant feel happy and gives her a sense of satisfaction (see table
15
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4). In terms of the negative emotions such as sad, mad and other negative expression has a
frequency of eleven, which is less than the ones associated with positive emotions. An example for
the negative emotion is the response from one of the participants: “it’s the other side of the internet,
the side that I don’t want to see”(see table 4). The response shows that the participant always wants
to see the positive consequence from using Instagram which is associated with the positive feedback
and does not want to see the other side that is associated with negativity. The table below presents
the consequence of emotions with the description, frequency and example per each theme that is
grouped under it:
Table 4: Emotions Consequence
The second major category that was identified as consequence is future intentions. Future intention
is defined as “the degree to which a person has formulated conscious plans to perform or not
perform some specified future behavior” (Warshaw & Davis, 1985, p.214). As shown in the table 5,
we identified different intentions for the participants in line with their future behavior for using
instagram.The findings are ten intentions: keep in touch, ongoing inspiration, features, trend,
recognition, passing time, self-flattery, ongoing curiosity, and ongoing information (see table 5).
We will refer with examples to the most important intentions in this study. As shown in the table
below, keep in touch with friends and other people has a frequency of nine, which is higher than
other future intentions. To give an example is the reply from one of the participants who stated
“Instagram also let me to connect with my friends by seeing their posts and stories” (see table 5).
This indicates that instagram is like a community where the participant can make connections with
friends and others, interact and keep in touch with them. Ongoing inspiration is another future
intention for the participants. For example, this statement: “I want to keep on learning and try to do
something different ” shows that the participant looks at instagram as a platform and a source for
ongoing inspirations (see table 5). Feature is another theme that is identified as future intentions and
as an example for this is a statement from one of the participants:“Nowadays it is more like to see
stories, what my friends are doing and to show them what I’m doing”(see table 5). This statement
16
frequency of eleven, which is less than the ones associated with positive emotions. An example for
the negative emotion is the response from one of the participants: “it’s the other side of the internet,
the side that I don’t want to see”(see table 4). The response shows that the participant always wants
to see the positive consequence from using Instagram which is associated with the positive feedback
and does not want to see the other side that is associated with negativity. The table below presents
the consequence of emotions with the description, frequency and example per each theme that is
grouped under it:
Table 4: Emotions Consequence
The second major category that was identified as consequence is future intentions. Future intention
is defined as “the degree to which a person has formulated conscious plans to perform or not
perform some specified future behavior” (Warshaw & Davis, 1985, p.214). As shown in the table 5,
we identified different intentions for the participants in line with their future behavior for using
instagram.The findings are ten intentions: keep in touch, ongoing inspiration, features, trend,
recognition, passing time, self-flattery, ongoing curiosity, and ongoing information (see table 5).
We will refer with examples to the most important intentions in this study. As shown in the table
below, keep in touch with friends and other people has a frequency of nine, which is higher than
other future intentions. To give an example is the reply from one of the participants who stated
“Instagram also let me to connect with my friends by seeing their posts and stories” (see table 5).
This indicates that instagram is like a community where the participant can make connections with
friends and others, interact and keep in touch with them. Ongoing inspiration is another future
intention for the participants. For example, this statement: “I want to keep on learning and try to do
something different ” shows that the participant looks at instagram as a platform and a source for
ongoing inspirations (see table 5). Feature is another theme that is identified as future intentions and
as an example for this is a statement from one of the participants:“Nowadays it is more like to see
stories, what my friends are doing and to show them what I’m doing”(see table 5). This statement
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shows that Instagram’s particular features of posting stories, pictures motivates the participant to
plan and keep on using the platform in the future. Another future intention that is also highlighted
by the participants is trend and how Instagram is now trendy among their peers. For example, this
statement: “I think it’s the trend, I think now Instagram is mostly used than other platforms” shows
that the use of instagram is associated with the fact that it is a trendy and a popular forum among
their peers (see table 5). Although the intention of recognition has a frequency of two, we thought
it also important to mention it with example as it refers to a state of identification that the
participant wants to achieve through using instagram. For example, this statement: “Instagram helps
us to get more recognition” shows that the participant intends to get recognition from others (see
table 5). The table below presents the description, frequency and example for each one of those
major future intentions that we explained as well as the other minor intentions of passing time, self-
flattery, ongoing curiosity and ongoing information:
Table 5: Future Intentions Consequence
It is also important to provide an overview of two minor categories that were identified as
consequences in this study. The first one was the influence of followers and how the participants
feel or react when they have many followers on instagram. As shown in table 10, there are two
different consequences under this category; the first one was associated with greed where they feel
17
plan and keep on using the platform in the future. Another future intention that is also highlighted
by the participants is trend and how Instagram is now trendy among their peers. For example, this
statement: “I think it’s the trend, I think now Instagram is mostly used than other platforms” shows
that the use of instagram is associated with the fact that it is a trendy and a popular forum among
their peers (see table 5). Although the intention of recognition has a frequency of two, we thought
it also important to mention it with example as it refers to a state of identification that the
participant wants to achieve through using instagram. For example, this statement: “Instagram helps
us to get more recognition” shows that the participant intends to get recognition from others (see
table 5). The table below presents the description, frequency and example for each one of those
major future intentions that we explained as well as the other minor intentions of passing time, self-
flattery, ongoing curiosity and ongoing information:
Table 5: Future Intentions Consequence
It is also important to provide an overview of two minor categories that were identified as
consequences in this study. The first one was the influence of followers and how the participants
feel or react when they have many followers on instagram. As shown in table 10, there are two
different consequences under this category; the first one was associated with greed where they feel
17
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excited to see an increase in the number of followers and the other one was associated with
carelessness to numbers (see appendix). Expectation and behaviors after posting was the second
minor consequence that we extracted. As shown in table 11, two different behaviors occur after
posting on instagram and this is based on the positive and negative feedback that they receive. If
they receive positive comments and lots of likes, they feel encouraged to keep on posting similar or
better content while they will be discouraged to keep on using the platform if they receive negative
comments form their followers. After presenting the determinants and consequences of our
qualitative study, we will discuss in the following section how these categories are related to each
and present the models that we extracted from these categories. We will also compare our results
with the findings of other researchers.
3.4. Discussion
Figure 4: Extracted Models of the Qualitative Study
The aim of this study was to explore the drivers of the participants for using Instagram, and how
much its usage affects their self-evaluation. It also aims to identify whether the tendency of social
comparison with friends and celebrities affect them and their evaluations of the self and how much
feedback and number of followers affect their emotions and behaviors. Based on the categories
18
carelessness to numbers (see appendix). Expectation and behaviors after posting was the second
minor consequence that we extracted. As shown in table 11, two different behaviors occur after
posting on instagram and this is based on the positive and negative feedback that they receive. If
they receive positive comments and lots of likes, they feel encouraged to keep on posting similar or
better content while they will be discouraged to keep on using the platform if they receive negative
comments form their followers. After presenting the determinants and consequences of our
qualitative study, we will discuss in the following section how these categories are related to each
and present the models that we extracted from these categories. We will also compare our results
with the findings of other researchers.
3.4. Discussion
Figure 4: Extracted Models of the Qualitative Study
The aim of this study was to explore the drivers of the participants for using Instagram, and how
much its usage affects their self-evaluation. It also aims to identify whether the tendency of social
comparison with friends and celebrities affect them and their evaluations of the self and how much
feedback and number of followers affect their emotions and behaviors. Based on the categories
18
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presented in the results section, we extracted the models shown in the figure above (see figure 4).
As shown in figure 4, motivations, social comparison, habits, personality and frequency of usage
are related to each other in terms of being the determinants and factors that result in emotions,
behaviors and future intentions. One of the findings of our study uncovers community, inspiration,
curiosity, narcissism, information as the major motivations for using Instagram and this contributes
to understanding usage and gratification theory. This theory explains that people are using specific
media based on their specific needs (Wu, Wang, & Tsai, 2010). Our result of curiosity and
community as motivations for using instagram coincides with the finding of a research used in this
study; it found out that instagram is considered as a forum where they seek information about others
(Sheldon & Bryant, 2015). This finding confirms that users are using this social platform as a forum
to keep in touch with others, watching what other people are doing and satisfying their needs of
what is called “surveillance about others” (Sheldon & Bryant, 2015, p.94). Our results of
information is another motivation that is supported by the finding of the same empirical study; it
referred to this result as documentation, where people can document every moment of their lives
and let others know about them through posting stories and album of pictures on instagram
(Sheldon & Bryant, 2015). This confirms that instagram represents a virtual album for the users
where they can show the pictures of their precious moments and share this information with friends
and other people. We also found out in our study that narcissism and self-flattery is another
motivation for using instagram and this coincides with the result of other researchers who found out
that there is a positive relationship between narcissism and instagarm (Sheldon & Bryant, 2015).
They found out that those narcissists who post certain posts on Instagram want to make themselves
appear in certain ways and cool to others (Sheldon & Bryant, 2015). This shows that instagram
appeals to those who are narcissists since the number of views to their posts make them feel
admired and interested by others and thereby this feed their self-perfection image. Another
motivation for using instagram was that the participants see it as a platform where they can enjoy
their experience in the form of inspiration and getting new ideas. This results coincides with the
findings of other researchers who showed that the use of instagram drives the inspiration level
among the users since they are communicating with a larger number of people (Meier & Schäfer,
2018). All the above findings show that the use of instagram by the users is linked with their needs
that are satisfied on the level of their motivations (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). This finding also shows
how satisfying their needs through an application make them keep on using it and this was apparent
in our results when they refer to their future plans and behaviors for using instagram.
19
As shown in figure 4, motivations, social comparison, habits, personality and frequency of usage
are related to each other in terms of being the determinants and factors that result in emotions,
behaviors and future intentions. One of the findings of our study uncovers community, inspiration,
curiosity, narcissism, information as the major motivations for using Instagram and this contributes
to understanding usage and gratification theory. This theory explains that people are using specific
media based on their specific needs (Wu, Wang, & Tsai, 2010). Our result of curiosity and
community as motivations for using instagram coincides with the finding of a research used in this
study; it found out that instagram is considered as a forum where they seek information about others
(Sheldon & Bryant, 2015). This finding confirms that users are using this social platform as a forum
to keep in touch with others, watching what other people are doing and satisfying their needs of
what is called “surveillance about others” (Sheldon & Bryant, 2015, p.94). Our results of
information is another motivation that is supported by the finding of the same empirical study; it
referred to this result as documentation, where people can document every moment of their lives
and let others know about them through posting stories and album of pictures on instagram
(Sheldon & Bryant, 2015). This confirms that instagram represents a virtual album for the users
where they can show the pictures of their precious moments and share this information with friends
and other people. We also found out in our study that narcissism and self-flattery is another
motivation for using instagram and this coincides with the result of other researchers who found out
that there is a positive relationship between narcissism and instagarm (Sheldon & Bryant, 2015).
They found out that those narcissists who post certain posts on Instagram want to make themselves
appear in certain ways and cool to others (Sheldon & Bryant, 2015). This shows that instagram
appeals to those who are narcissists since the number of views to their posts make them feel
admired and interested by others and thereby this feed their self-perfection image. Another
motivation for using instagram was that the participants see it as a platform where they can enjoy
their experience in the form of inspiration and getting new ideas. This results coincides with the
findings of other researchers who showed that the use of instagram drives the inspiration level
among the users since they are communicating with a larger number of people (Meier & Schäfer,
2018). All the above findings show that the use of instagram by the users is linked with their needs
that are satisfied on the level of their motivations (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). This finding also shows
how satisfying their needs through an application make them keep on using it and this was apparent
in our results when they refer to their future plans and behaviors for using instagram.
19
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Another finding of our study was about the effects of exposure to others posts and how the tendency
of social comparison with others affect their self-evaluations. When the participants compare the
number of likes and followers they have with those of friends and celebrities, it results in feelings
and influences both in its positive and negative dimensions. The result of following a celebrity on
instagram with lots of followers and likes can result in admiration to the way that celebrity is living
and positive influence in the form of inspiration to work hard and be like her. Envy and negative
influence are other outcomes that occurred while comparing themselves to those that are perceived
as superior and not being able to reach their world in terms of likes and followers. Our finding
partially comes in line with the result of other researchers in terms of showing the link and
relationship between social comparison and inspiration on instagram, yet that study does not
confirm our result that social comparison can negatively affect an individual’s self-evaluation
(Meier & Schäfer, 2018). There is a study about the effects of likes on women’s social comparison
and body dissatisfaction that coincides with our result only in terms of negative outcome and envy.
We are not dealing with body dissatisfaction but it confirms our finding in the sense of that
exposing to posts with a high number of likes evokes other emotional states such as envy
(Tiggermann et al., 2018). Although the positive effect of social comparison was stronger in
frequency than its negative effect, the finding suggests that the participants experience the feeling of
envy and the sense of low evaluation of the self and ability when they really compare themselves to
a world of not being able to reach. This finding comes in line with the result of another study
showing that viewing posts of others can increase or decrease the positive effect based on how
much that user tends to engage in social comparison (De Vries et al., 2018).
Although we did not find any coincidence or contradiction in the study of other researchers in line
with some of our results, it is important to discuss and refer to these findings as well. Because social
networking allows individuals to present themselves through their own posts, this makes us have a
question of what effect do the feedback may have on their emotions and behaviors. The finding of
this study shows that feedback results in positive feelings and behaviors in association with positive
response and negative feelings and behaviors in association with the negative ones. The participants
feel encouraged to post more contents when they receive positive feedback, which indicates that the
positive feedback stimulates the users to behave positively in response to such feedback and affect
his behavior in the future as well. The response of the participant in terms of negative feedback as a
world he would not like to see suggests that the user is looking at instagram as a platform where
he/she receives support, appreciation, recognition and positive evaluation to the self. Investigating
about the number of followers and its effect on the participants, we found out two different answers,
20
of social comparison with others affect their self-evaluations. When the participants compare the
number of likes and followers they have with those of friends and celebrities, it results in feelings
and influences both in its positive and negative dimensions. The result of following a celebrity on
instagram with lots of followers and likes can result in admiration to the way that celebrity is living
and positive influence in the form of inspiration to work hard and be like her. Envy and negative
influence are other outcomes that occurred while comparing themselves to those that are perceived
as superior and not being able to reach their world in terms of likes and followers. Our finding
partially comes in line with the result of other researchers in terms of showing the link and
relationship between social comparison and inspiration on instagram, yet that study does not
confirm our result that social comparison can negatively affect an individual’s self-evaluation
(Meier & Schäfer, 2018). There is a study about the effects of likes on women’s social comparison
and body dissatisfaction that coincides with our result only in terms of negative outcome and envy.
We are not dealing with body dissatisfaction but it confirms our finding in the sense of that
exposing to posts with a high number of likes evokes other emotional states such as envy
(Tiggermann et al., 2018). Although the positive effect of social comparison was stronger in
frequency than its negative effect, the finding suggests that the participants experience the feeling of
envy and the sense of low evaluation of the self and ability when they really compare themselves to
a world of not being able to reach. This finding comes in line with the result of another study
showing that viewing posts of others can increase or decrease the positive effect based on how
much that user tends to engage in social comparison (De Vries et al., 2018).
Although we did not find any coincidence or contradiction in the study of other researchers in line
with some of our results, it is important to discuss and refer to these findings as well. Because social
networking allows individuals to present themselves through their own posts, this makes us have a
question of what effect do the feedback may have on their emotions and behaviors. The finding of
this study shows that feedback results in positive feelings and behaviors in association with positive
response and negative feelings and behaviors in association with the negative ones. The participants
feel encouraged to post more contents when they receive positive feedback, which indicates that the
positive feedback stimulates the users to behave positively in response to such feedback and affect
his behavior in the future as well. The response of the participant in terms of negative feedback as a
world he would not like to see suggests that the user is looking at instagram as a platform where
he/she receives support, appreciation, recognition and positive evaluation to the self. Investigating
about the number of followers and its effect on the participants, we found out two different answers,
20
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one associated with carelessness and the other one was associated with greed and desire for having
more followers. This shows that caring about the number of followers is reliant on the personality
and motivation of the participant in the effective use of instagram. Although we did not focus so
much on the frequency of usage in this study, it is important to mention that the high frequency for
the daily usage in our result is an indicator that the users are actively using instagram for meeting
their specific needs. Platform characteristics were also not mentioned in details in the result section
because it was not the main aim of our research, but our finding shows that the complexity of the
platform is quite low and this is why the participants are using it regularly and daily than the other
platforms such as Facebook, Snapchat and twitter.
The feature of instagram as being an image based platform was one of those reasons identified in
the future intentions. Posting pictures on instagram is a good medium for the users to connect their
feelings and situations with friends and people whom they know. This finding coincides with the
result of another research that found out the positive effects of images based platforms such as
instagram and how it increases the interaction among the users and reduces their loneliness through
making them connect with others (Pittman & Reich, 2016). This finding shows the positive effect of
this feature on the behavior of the participant through creating the sense of social presence and
induce the sense of communicating with an actual person than an object (Pittman & Reich, 2016)
Although we did not discuss the category of habits in details in the result section, it is prominent to
point out how using the feature of hashtag on instagram becomes like a habit for the participants.
We did not investigate so much the reason for liking hashtags, but through analyzing the statement
of the participants we can see that using this feature helps the users to share posts with many
hashtags. It shows that the feature of hashtag allows them to easily and quickly look for different
posts on any content they like or share their posts with many hashtags along the common theme of
the hashtag among users. This finding comes in line with the result of another study that showed the
positive experience on instagram results from its particular functionality and features such as
searching and browsing via content or specific hashtag (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). This finding also
shows that the positive experience of using the platform’s features such as hashtag, FIG and other
appealing features lead the users to keep using the platform in the future. Future intention was also
one of the categories that were not supported by the results of the other studies used in this research,
yet all our findings suggest that enjoying a positive experience and satisfying a specific need
through using instagram stimulate the users to extend their usage to the platform even in the future.
This finding is confirmed by what Bentler and Speckart (1979) found out in their psychological
review: “Models of attitude-behavior relations” that the frequency of previous behavior predicts
21
more followers. This shows that caring about the number of followers is reliant on the personality
and motivation of the participant in the effective use of instagram. Although we did not focus so
much on the frequency of usage in this study, it is important to mention that the high frequency for
the daily usage in our result is an indicator that the users are actively using instagram for meeting
their specific needs. Platform characteristics were also not mentioned in details in the result section
because it was not the main aim of our research, but our finding shows that the complexity of the
platform is quite low and this is why the participants are using it regularly and daily than the other
platforms such as Facebook, Snapchat and twitter.
The feature of instagram as being an image based platform was one of those reasons identified in
the future intentions. Posting pictures on instagram is a good medium for the users to connect their
feelings and situations with friends and people whom they know. This finding coincides with the
result of another research that found out the positive effects of images based platforms such as
instagram and how it increases the interaction among the users and reduces their loneliness through
making them connect with others (Pittman & Reich, 2016). This finding shows the positive effect of
this feature on the behavior of the participant through creating the sense of social presence and
induce the sense of communicating with an actual person than an object (Pittman & Reich, 2016)
Although we did not discuss the category of habits in details in the result section, it is prominent to
point out how using the feature of hashtag on instagram becomes like a habit for the participants.
We did not investigate so much the reason for liking hashtags, but through analyzing the statement
of the participants we can see that using this feature helps the users to share posts with many
hashtags. It shows that the feature of hashtag allows them to easily and quickly look for different
posts on any content they like or share their posts with many hashtags along the common theme of
the hashtag among users. This finding comes in line with the result of another study that showed the
positive experience on instagram results from its particular functionality and features such as
searching and browsing via content or specific hashtag (Meier & Schäfer, 2018). This finding also
shows that the positive experience of using the platform’s features such as hashtag, FIG and other
appealing features lead the users to keep using the platform in the future. Future intention was also
one of the categories that were not supported by the results of the other studies used in this research,
yet all our findings suggest that enjoying a positive experience and satisfying a specific need
through using instagram stimulate the users to extend their usage to the platform even in the future.
This finding is confirmed by what Bentler and Speckart (1979) found out in their psychological
review: “Models of attitude-behavior relations” that the frequency of previous behavior predicts
21
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behavior along with conscious intentions (see references). Moreover, the low complexity of the
platform and being a trend among their peers make the users continue using instagram. As we
discussed our findings in this study and compared them to the results of other researchers, it is
important to highlight two studies that we could not find any relationship in line with the findings .
The first study is about self-discrepancy and how it mediates the influence of instagram usage on
body satisfaction and the second one is the associations between instagram use and depressive
symptoms through the mechanism of social comparison (see chapter 2, section 2.3). Thus, we
considered this point as a weakness in the design of our qualitative study and thought of eliminating
this weakness through investigating further about these topics in the following chapter of
quantitative analysis and close the gaps that we had in this study. We will also provide validity to
those findings that we could not support them by the studies used in this research. Moreover, we
will investigate more about all these categories that are identified as determinants and consequences
and the relationship between them.
4. Quantitative Analysis
During the quantitative research, a lot of different procedures and techniques are used for
collecting, organizing, describing, analyzing, and interpreting data (Antonius, 2003, p. 18). It is a
long process from building up hypotheses up to analyzing and interpreting the data with the help of
tools like SPSS. Suitable scales for a questionnaire must be adapted to our research and multiple
test runs of our survey must be conducted before the final survey can be spread among the right
participants. This chapter deals with the process of our quantitative research and gives the reader
detailed insights into the different steps of our analysis.
4.1. Hypotheses
To eliminate potential design weaknesses from our qualitative study, we were focusing on research
questions that couldn’t be answered and adapted them to our quantitative research. While thinking
about interesting hypotheses, we were determined to investigate further into the direction of the
studies that we couldn’t find any connection between the outcome of the other researchers and our
findings. One study was conducted by Tiggemann et al. in 2018 and was investigating social
comparison on Instagram and if there were any associations between Instagram use and
depressive symptoms through that mechanism. The second study we wanted to investigate was
22
platform and being a trend among their peers make the users continue using instagram. As we
discussed our findings in this study and compared them to the results of other researchers, it is
important to highlight two studies that we could not find any relationship in line with the findings .
The first study is about self-discrepancy and how it mediates the influence of instagram usage on
body satisfaction and the second one is the associations between instagram use and depressive
symptoms through the mechanism of social comparison (see chapter 2, section 2.3). Thus, we
considered this point as a weakness in the design of our qualitative study and thought of eliminating
this weakness through investigating further about these topics in the following chapter of
quantitative analysis and close the gaps that we had in this study. We will also provide validity to
those findings that we could not support them by the studies used in this research. Moreover, we
will investigate more about all these categories that are identified as determinants and consequences
and the relationship between them.
4. Quantitative Analysis
During the quantitative research, a lot of different procedures and techniques are used for
collecting, organizing, describing, analyzing, and interpreting data (Antonius, 2003, p. 18). It is a
long process from building up hypotheses up to analyzing and interpreting the data with the help of
tools like SPSS. Suitable scales for a questionnaire must be adapted to our research and multiple
test runs of our survey must be conducted before the final survey can be spread among the right
participants. This chapter deals with the process of our quantitative research and gives the reader
detailed insights into the different steps of our analysis.
4.1. Hypotheses
To eliminate potential design weaknesses from our qualitative study, we were focusing on research
questions that couldn’t be answered and adapted them to our quantitative research. While thinking
about interesting hypotheses, we were determined to investigate further into the direction of the
studies that we couldn’t find any connection between the outcome of the other researchers and our
findings. One study was conducted by Tiggemann et al. in 2018 and was investigating social
comparison on Instagram and if there were any associations between Instagram use and
depressive symptoms through that mechanism. The second study we wanted to investigate was
22
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conducted by Ahadzadeh et al. in 2017 and their research was investigating self-discrepancy and
how it mediates the influence of Instagram usage on body satisfaction. Therefore, we were trying
to focus especially on self-discrepancy, social comparison, and emotions that might occur while
these mechanisms take place. Moreover, we were building other hypotheses to see if the findings
of our qualitative research and the findings of other researchers could be confirmed a second time
or if it was contradicting the previous findings. The following table gives an overview of the number
of our hypotheses and our independent and dependent variables:
Number Independent Variables Dependent Variables
H1 Social Comparison Negative Emotions
H2 Narcissism Future Intentions
H3 Escapism
Community
Motives
Social Comparison
Positive Emotions
H4 Self-Discrepancy Positive Emotions
H5 User Behavior Positive Emotions
H6 Narcissism Social Comparison
H7 Narcissism Hours of using Instagram
H8 Positive Emotions Future Intentions
Table 1. Overview: Hypotheses
Our first hypothesis has the independent variable social comparison and the dependent variable
negative emotions. This hypothesis is part of our goal to close occurring research gaps and to
draw lines between our findings and those of Tiggemann et al (2018). We’ve formed the following
hypothesis:
H1: The more the social comparison takes place on Instagram, the higher the negative
emotions.
The second hypothesis has the independent variable narcissism and the dependent variable future
intentions. Narcissism and future intentions were also variables that we wanted to investigate
further in our quantitative research. We wanted to examine how Narcissism has an influence on
different dependent variables and how future intentions gets influenced by other independent
variables. Hypothesis number two is the following:
H2: The higher the narcissism, the higher the intention to keep on using Instagram in the
future.
The next hypothesis has four independent variables: escapism, community, motives, and social
comparison. The dependent variable is positive emotions. With this hypothesis, we wanted to see if
the results of our qualitative research can be confirmed or not and what variables have an
influence on getting positive emotions. Even though escapism and community can be seen as a
part of the overall motives, we wanted to examine them independently from the others:
23
how it mediates the influence of Instagram usage on body satisfaction. Therefore, we were trying
to focus especially on self-discrepancy, social comparison, and emotions that might occur while
these mechanisms take place. Moreover, we were building other hypotheses to see if the findings
of our qualitative research and the findings of other researchers could be confirmed a second time
or if it was contradicting the previous findings. The following table gives an overview of the number
of our hypotheses and our independent and dependent variables:
Number Independent Variables Dependent Variables
H1 Social Comparison Negative Emotions
H2 Narcissism Future Intentions
H3 Escapism
Community
Motives
Social Comparison
Positive Emotions
H4 Self-Discrepancy Positive Emotions
H5 User Behavior Positive Emotions
H6 Narcissism Social Comparison
H7 Narcissism Hours of using Instagram
H8 Positive Emotions Future Intentions
Table 1. Overview: Hypotheses
Our first hypothesis has the independent variable social comparison and the dependent variable
negative emotions. This hypothesis is part of our goal to close occurring research gaps and to
draw lines between our findings and those of Tiggemann et al (2018). We’ve formed the following
hypothesis:
H1: The more the social comparison takes place on Instagram, the higher the negative
emotions.
The second hypothesis has the independent variable narcissism and the dependent variable future
intentions. Narcissism and future intentions were also variables that we wanted to investigate
further in our quantitative research. We wanted to examine how Narcissism has an influence on
different dependent variables and how future intentions gets influenced by other independent
variables. Hypothesis number two is the following:
H2: The higher the narcissism, the higher the intention to keep on using Instagram in the
future.
The next hypothesis has four independent variables: escapism, community, motives, and social
comparison. The dependent variable is positive emotions. With this hypothesis, we wanted to see if
the results of our qualitative research can be confirmed or not and what variables have an
influence on getting positive emotions. Even though escapism and community can be seen as a
part of the overall motives, we wanted to examine them independently from the others:
23
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H3: The higher the items escapism, community, motives, and social comparison, the higher
the positive emotions.
The fourth hypothesis shall investigate the independent variable self-discrepancy and how it
influences the dependent variable positive emotions. This is part of our process to close research
gaps regarding the research of Ahadzadeh et al. (2017):
H4: The higher the display of the ideal self (self-discrepancy), the higher the positive
emotions.
Hypothesis number five is stating that the independent variable user behavior positively influences
the dependent variable positive emotions:
H5: The higher the user behavior (uploading pictures, videos, etc.), the higher the positive
emotions.
Hypothesis number six has the independent variable narcissism and the dependent variable social
comparison. This was one of the hypotheses that our group was most interested in and curious
about how the outcome will look like:
H6: The higher the narcissism, the higher the social comparison.
The next hypothesis has the independent variable narcissism and the dependent variable
hours/minutes of using Instagram:
H7: The higher the narcissism, the higher the hours/minutes of using Instagram.
Last but not least, hypothesis number eight has the independent variable positive emotions and
the dependent variable future intentions and states the following:
H8: The higher the positive emotions, the higher the intention to keep on using Instagram in
the future.
After all of our eight hypotheses have been revealed, we can move over to the method of our
quantitative research.
4.2. Method
The following subsection 4.2.1. deals with the overall statistical analysis and explains the different
statistical terms that we have used from the beginning until the end of our research. The following
chapter 4.2.2. explains the process behind the quantitative study and how our group developed the
24
the positive emotions.
The fourth hypothesis shall investigate the independent variable self-discrepancy and how it
influences the dependent variable positive emotions. This is part of our process to close research
gaps regarding the research of Ahadzadeh et al. (2017):
H4: The higher the display of the ideal self (self-discrepancy), the higher the positive
emotions.
Hypothesis number five is stating that the independent variable user behavior positively influences
the dependent variable positive emotions:
H5: The higher the user behavior (uploading pictures, videos, etc.), the higher the positive
emotions.
Hypothesis number six has the independent variable narcissism and the dependent variable social
comparison. This was one of the hypotheses that our group was most interested in and curious
about how the outcome will look like:
H6: The higher the narcissism, the higher the social comparison.
The next hypothesis has the independent variable narcissism and the dependent variable
hours/minutes of using Instagram:
H7: The higher the narcissism, the higher the hours/minutes of using Instagram.
Last but not least, hypothesis number eight has the independent variable positive emotions and
the dependent variable future intentions and states the following:
H8: The higher the positive emotions, the higher the intention to keep on using Instagram in
the future.
After all of our eight hypotheses have been revealed, we can move over to the method of our
quantitative research.
4.2. Method
The following subsection 4.2.1. deals with the overall statistical analysis and explains the different
statistical terms that we have used from the beginning until the end of our research. The following
chapter 4.2.2. explains the process behind the quantitative study and how our group developed the
24
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questionnaire for the unipark platform. Chapter 4.2.3. will focus on the sample characteristics and
will give an overview of the most important informations of our sample.
4.2.1. Statistical Analysis
For our research, we had to do several different analyses on SPSS. For the sample characteristics
and the EFA, it is very important to measure the mean and the standard deviation of certain
variables. The mean, often simply called the average, is often used for variables like age, income
or household size. It is a summary statistic and can help to determine the position of variables with
an interval-level scale or higher (Kohler et al., 2005, p. 153). Often calculated together with the
mean, the standard deviation is the most common summary statistic for determining the dispersion
of a distribution. It can be seen as the average distance of the observations from the arithmetic
mean. Before you can calculate the standard deviation, the mean needs to be calculated first,
hence the standard deviation can only be calculated for variables for which one can calculate the
mean. (Kohler, et al., 2005, p. 153).
Measuring Cronbach’s Alpha is part of the next analysis and is one of the most frequently applied
reliability measures (Eckstein, 2006, p. 299). Hence, it is also often called the reliability coefficient.
The Cronbach's Alpha has to be over 0,7 to be seen as reliable and to conduct the EFA. The aim
of the Explorative Factor Analysis or short EFA is to identify the structure of the relationship
between the variable and the factor (Bühl, 2006, p. 510). With the help of EFA, a large number of
items can be summarized based on their correlative relationships to several manageable and
interpretable factors. Therefore, EFA serves to generate hypotheses. Data reduction and
dimension reduction are the central tasks of EFA and with that, a large number of independent
items can be attributed to those influencing factors that are relevant for an explanation (Bühl, 2006,
p. 510).
Regression Analysis was also used during our study and helps to analyze multifactor data and
provides a conceptually simple method for examining functional relationships among variables.
Usually, to approach this analysis, the researcher has to take data, fit a model, and then to
evaluate the fit using statistics such as F-Value and R². (Chatterjee, et al., 2006, p. 1). R² helps to
learn about the model quality and tells you how much of the dependent variable is explained with
one or multiple independent variables. Therefore, the higher the value, the better the fit (Kilian,
2019, p. 99). The F-Value tests the reliability of regression estimation and if the value is greater
than 4,0 a statistical significance is indicated (Kilian, 2019, p. 113). To understand regression
analysis, two terms are playing an essential role to comprehend the process. The dependent
variable, which is the main factor that the researcher is trying to predict or understand and the
independent variables, which are the factors that are hypothesized to have an impact on the
dependent variable (Foley, 2018, https://www.surveygizmo.com/resources/blog/regression-
analysis/, 05.03.2020). During our hypothesis testing, we used mostly simple linear regression
25
will give an overview of the most important informations of our sample.
4.2.1. Statistical Analysis
For our research, we had to do several different analyses on SPSS. For the sample characteristics
and the EFA, it is very important to measure the mean and the standard deviation of certain
variables. The mean, often simply called the average, is often used for variables like age, income
or household size. It is a summary statistic and can help to determine the position of variables with
an interval-level scale or higher (Kohler et al., 2005, p. 153). Often calculated together with the
mean, the standard deviation is the most common summary statistic for determining the dispersion
of a distribution. It can be seen as the average distance of the observations from the arithmetic
mean. Before you can calculate the standard deviation, the mean needs to be calculated first,
hence the standard deviation can only be calculated for variables for which one can calculate the
mean. (Kohler, et al., 2005, p. 153).
Measuring Cronbach’s Alpha is part of the next analysis and is one of the most frequently applied
reliability measures (Eckstein, 2006, p. 299). Hence, it is also often called the reliability coefficient.
The Cronbach's Alpha has to be over 0,7 to be seen as reliable and to conduct the EFA. The aim
of the Explorative Factor Analysis or short EFA is to identify the structure of the relationship
between the variable and the factor (Bühl, 2006, p. 510). With the help of EFA, a large number of
items can be summarized based on their correlative relationships to several manageable and
interpretable factors. Therefore, EFA serves to generate hypotheses. Data reduction and
dimension reduction are the central tasks of EFA and with that, a large number of independent
items can be attributed to those influencing factors that are relevant for an explanation (Bühl, 2006,
p. 510).
Regression Analysis was also used during our study and helps to analyze multifactor data and
provides a conceptually simple method for examining functional relationships among variables.
Usually, to approach this analysis, the researcher has to take data, fit a model, and then to
evaluate the fit using statistics such as F-Value and R². (Chatterjee, et al., 2006, p. 1). R² helps to
learn about the model quality and tells you how much of the dependent variable is explained with
one or multiple independent variables. Therefore, the higher the value, the better the fit (Kilian,
2019, p. 99). The F-Value tests the reliability of regression estimation and if the value is greater
than 4,0 a statistical significance is indicated (Kilian, 2019, p. 113). To understand regression
analysis, two terms are playing an essential role to comprehend the process. The dependent
variable, which is the main factor that the researcher is trying to predict or understand and the
independent variables, which are the factors that are hypothesized to have an impact on the
dependent variable (Foley, 2018, https://www.surveygizmo.com/resources/blog/regression-
analysis/, 05.03.2020). During our hypothesis testing, we used mostly simple linear regression
25
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analysis, where the relationship between two variables is established by using a straight line. On
the other hand, we only had one multiple linear regression that attempts to explain a dependent
variable by using more than just one independent variable (Yan, 2009, p. 41). ANOVA, the
Analysis of Variance, is also a part of our research and is a statistical method that separates
observed variance data into different components to use for additional tests. It is the first step in
analyzing factors that affect a given data set and allows a comparison of more than two groups at
the same time to determine whether a relationship exists between them or not (Kenton, 2019,
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/anova.asp, 05.03.2020). With the help of the ANOVA output
in regression analysis, one can calculate the R², the F-Value, and even see the significance of the
factors (Kilian, 2019, p. 42). A lot of different analyses are contributing to an extensive and detailed
research and hypotheses testing.
4.2.2. Process
The main part of our quantitative research was the development of a survey to spread it among our
participants. The main goal of the participants that we wanted to reach was 100. While a
questionnaire is any written set of questions, a survey is both a set of individual questions and the
process of collecting, aggregating and analyzing the responses from those questions (McKee,
2015, https://www.surveygizmo.com/resources/blog/taking-the-question-out-of-questionnaires/,
07.03.2020). But before we could create a questionnaire and put it into our survey, it was very
important to develop fitting hypotheses to close research gaps from the qualitative research. The
first step was to think about hypotheses that we wanted to investigate with our quantitative
research and we came up with eight different hypotheses that we already specified in chapter 4.1.
The next step was to look for other researchers that were previously investigating the topics and
already developed a scale with interesting questions for our research. The following table gives an
overview of the topic that we wanted to examine with the survey, the researchers from which we
adapted their scale to our study and also how many items we’ve used to put into the final survey:
Topic Researchers/Scale from Number of Items
Platform Complexity Own Scale 2
User Behavior Own Scale 6
Narcissism Emmons (1987) 5
Self-Discrepancy Lennox/Wolfe (1984) 5
Self-Modification Lennox/Wolfe (1984) 3
Social Comparison Gibbons/Buunk (1999) 4
Community Peterson/Speer/McMillan (2007) 5
Escapism Rubin (1983) 3
Motives Rubin (1983) 12
Emotions Richins (1997) 14
Overall Questions Own Scale 4
Table 2. Overview: Topic and Scale Quantitative Research
26
the other hand, we only had one multiple linear regression that attempts to explain a dependent
variable by using more than just one independent variable (Yan, 2009, p. 41). ANOVA, the
Analysis of Variance, is also a part of our research and is a statistical method that separates
observed variance data into different components to use for additional tests. It is the first step in
analyzing factors that affect a given data set and allows a comparison of more than two groups at
the same time to determine whether a relationship exists between them or not (Kenton, 2019,
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/anova.asp, 05.03.2020). With the help of the ANOVA output
in regression analysis, one can calculate the R², the F-Value, and even see the significance of the
factors (Kilian, 2019, p. 42). A lot of different analyses are contributing to an extensive and detailed
research and hypotheses testing.
4.2.2. Process
The main part of our quantitative research was the development of a survey to spread it among our
participants. The main goal of the participants that we wanted to reach was 100. While a
questionnaire is any written set of questions, a survey is both a set of individual questions and the
process of collecting, aggregating and analyzing the responses from those questions (McKee,
2015, https://www.surveygizmo.com/resources/blog/taking-the-question-out-of-questionnaires/,
07.03.2020). But before we could create a questionnaire and put it into our survey, it was very
important to develop fitting hypotheses to close research gaps from the qualitative research. The
first step was to think about hypotheses that we wanted to investigate with our quantitative
research and we came up with eight different hypotheses that we already specified in chapter 4.1.
The next step was to look for other researchers that were previously investigating the topics and
already developed a scale with interesting questions for our research. The following table gives an
overview of the topic that we wanted to examine with the survey, the researchers from which we
adapted their scale to our study and also how many items we’ve used to put into the final survey:
Topic Researchers/Scale from Number of Items
Platform Complexity Own Scale 2
User Behavior Own Scale 6
Narcissism Emmons (1987) 5
Self-Discrepancy Lennox/Wolfe (1984) 5
Self-Modification Lennox/Wolfe (1984) 3
Social Comparison Gibbons/Buunk (1999) 4
Community Peterson/Speer/McMillan (2007) 5
Escapism Rubin (1983) 3
Motives Rubin (1983) 12
Emotions Richins (1997) 14
Overall Questions Own Scale 4
Table 2. Overview: Topic and Scale Quantitative Research
26
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With our survey, we were investigating the topics platform complexity, user behavior, narcissism,
self-discrepancy, self-modification, social comparison, community, escapism, motives, emotions,
and overall questions, especially how their future intentions in keeping on using the platform looks
like. Usually, we were looking for the most important topics for our research and the more
important the topic was, the more items we adapted to our final survey. After we’ve picked out a
few items, we were adapting them to our survey. But this was only the beginning of the process of
our quantitative study. The following figure will give an overview of the overall process that our
group went through from the first hypothesis that was developed until the data analysis with SPSS:
Figure 1. Overview: Quantitative Process
After the scales were adapted to our research, we were putting all questions into a word document
and developed our scale for our online survey. The full questionnaire can be found in the
attachments. We were mostly using a five-point-Likert scale for the questions, just the general
questions of age, gender, country of origin, and occupation needed to be written down by the
participants. We were using Unipark to put our survey online and we ran several tests before we
were putting the survey online. The survey was spread on several platforms, social media like
Facebook and Instagram, but also on Trainex of the HMKW. The survey started on the 11th of
January and took around two weeks to reach the goal of 100 participants. Our group reached 103
participants because we didn’t close the survey fast enough. After we’ve reached enough
participants, we were closing the survey and the data analysis with SPSS could be conducted.
27
Developing
hypotheses to
close research gap
Scale review of
other researchers
Adapting scales to
own research
Word document
with questions for
survey
Building survey on
Unipark Multiple test runs
Starting the actual
survey/Spreading
the link on
different platforms
Closing the survey
after reaching 100
participants
Data analysis with
SPSS
self-discrepancy, self-modification, social comparison, community, escapism, motives, emotions,
and overall questions, especially how their future intentions in keeping on using the platform looks
like. Usually, we were looking for the most important topics for our research and the more
important the topic was, the more items we adapted to our final survey. After we’ve picked out a
few items, we were adapting them to our survey. But this was only the beginning of the process of
our quantitative study. The following figure will give an overview of the overall process that our
group went through from the first hypothesis that was developed until the data analysis with SPSS:
Figure 1. Overview: Quantitative Process
After the scales were adapted to our research, we were putting all questions into a word document
and developed our scale for our online survey. The full questionnaire can be found in the
attachments. We were mostly using a five-point-Likert scale for the questions, just the general
questions of age, gender, country of origin, and occupation needed to be written down by the
participants. We were using Unipark to put our survey online and we ran several tests before we
were putting the survey online. The survey was spread on several platforms, social media like
Facebook and Instagram, but also on Trainex of the HMKW. The survey started on the 11th of
January and took around two weeks to reach the goal of 100 participants. Our group reached 103
participants because we didn’t close the survey fast enough. After we’ve reached enough
participants, we were closing the survey and the data analysis with SPSS could be conducted.
27
Developing
hypotheses to
close research gap
Scale review of
other researchers
Adapting scales to
own research
Word document
with questions for
survey
Building survey on
Unipark Multiple test runs
Starting the actual
survey/Spreading
the link on
different platforms
Closing the survey
after reaching 100
participants
Data analysis with
SPSS
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4.2.3. Sample Characteristics
The following table shows the sample characteristics that were analyzed with SPSS.
Number of Participants 103
Age M (SD) 27,66 years (10,084)
Gender Male: 39,8%
Female: 58,3%
Occupation Student: 50,5%
Employed/Self-Employed: 46,6%
Unemployed: 2,9%
Country of Origin Germany: 18,4%
Rest of Europe: 1,9%
Asia: 73,8%
America: 1,0%
Africa: 4,9%
Contact E-Mail: 4,9%
Social Media (Facebook, Instagram): 44,7%
Others (e.g. Trainex, WOM): 50,5%
Minutes on Instagram M (SD) 85,36 minutes (129,34)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 3. Overview: Sample Characteristics
As you can see, the table shows the different characteristics of the overall sample that was
collected during the online survey. The sample is characterized by the number of participants, age,
gender, occupation, country of origin, how they got in contact with the survey and the overall
minutes that the participants spent on Instagram. With our survey, we’ve reached a total of 103
participants, before we’ve closed it, the aim was to reach 100 people with this online survey. We
were aiming for a target group between 20 to 30 years and as shown in the table, the mean of the
age is 27,66 years with a standard deviation of 10,084, so our aim was met. We were also trying to
have an equally distributed participation of males and females in our survey. Around 39,8% of our
participants were male and 58,3% of them were female. Even though the gender distribution was
not that balanced, you can explain that phenomenon with the popularity of the platform among
females rather than males (Knibbs, 2014, https://www.dailydot.com/irl/instagram-gender-
stereotypes-equality/, 27.02.2020). For our survey, it was more important to reach participants that
are actively using Instagram, so the distribution by gender wasn’t that important for us to reach an
equal amount of males and females. Regarding the occupation, we were targeting a convenience
sample, which means that people who are willing to conduct the survey are also available when
they are needed (Fink, 2009, p. 56). As students at the HMKW, the most convenient target group
for us were students, which are represented with 50,5% in the table. But we were also following
another nonprobability-sampling technique called snowball sampling which is primarily used for
exploratory research (Babbie, 2008, p. 205). Here, we were collecting the data of the members of
the target group and asked them to send the survey to other friends and especially to people who
were actively using Instagram. 46,6% of the participants were employed or self-employed while
only 2,9% of them were unemployed. The aim of the target group was reached in the occupation
28
The following table shows the sample characteristics that were analyzed with SPSS.
Number of Participants 103
Age M (SD) 27,66 years (10,084)
Gender Male: 39,8%
Female: 58,3%
Occupation Student: 50,5%
Employed/Self-Employed: 46,6%
Unemployed: 2,9%
Country of Origin Germany: 18,4%
Rest of Europe: 1,9%
Asia: 73,8%
America: 1,0%
Africa: 4,9%
Contact E-Mail: 4,9%
Social Media (Facebook, Instagram): 44,7%
Others (e.g. Trainex, WOM): 50,5%
Minutes on Instagram M (SD) 85,36 minutes (129,34)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 3. Overview: Sample Characteristics
As you can see, the table shows the different characteristics of the overall sample that was
collected during the online survey. The sample is characterized by the number of participants, age,
gender, occupation, country of origin, how they got in contact with the survey and the overall
minutes that the participants spent on Instagram. With our survey, we’ve reached a total of 103
participants, before we’ve closed it, the aim was to reach 100 people with this online survey. We
were aiming for a target group between 20 to 30 years and as shown in the table, the mean of the
age is 27,66 years with a standard deviation of 10,084, so our aim was met. We were also trying to
have an equally distributed participation of males and females in our survey. Around 39,8% of our
participants were male and 58,3% of them were female. Even though the gender distribution was
not that balanced, you can explain that phenomenon with the popularity of the platform among
females rather than males (Knibbs, 2014, https://www.dailydot.com/irl/instagram-gender-
stereotypes-equality/, 27.02.2020). For our survey, it was more important to reach participants that
are actively using Instagram, so the distribution by gender wasn’t that important for us to reach an
equal amount of males and females. Regarding the occupation, we were targeting a convenience
sample, which means that people who are willing to conduct the survey are also available when
they are needed (Fink, 2009, p. 56). As students at the HMKW, the most convenient target group
for us were students, which are represented with 50,5% in the table. But we were also following
another nonprobability-sampling technique called snowball sampling which is primarily used for
exploratory research (Babbie, 2008, p. 205). Here, we were collecting the data of the members of
the target group and asked them to send the survey to other friends and especially to people who
were actively using Instagram. 46,6% of the participants were employed or self-employed while
only 2,9% of them were unemployed. The aim of the target group was reached in the occupation
28
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section. Coming to the country of origin, we were assigning them to certain continents/countries to
arrange the sample more clearly and to narrow down countries that were not represented that
often. There were 18,4% of participants from Germany and only 1,9% with people from the rest of
Europe (e.g. Norway). From Asia (e.g. India, Vietnam, etc.) a whole of 73,8% of participants
conducted the survey. Only 1% of the participants were from America and 4,9% from Africa (e.g.
Cameroon, Nigeria, etc.). The HMKW is a place with international students from all over the world,
so it makes sense that the participants came from different places. Asia is one of the biggest
continents in the world with a total population of around 4,6 billion people and this might be the
reason why the biggest part of the participants was from different parts from Asia (Rosenberg,
2019, https://www.thoughtco.com/continents-ranked-by-size-and-population-4163436). Since the
country of origin did not influence the outcome of the survey, the distribution of the country of origin
wasn’t that important for our research. Another interesting outcome of the survey was to know how
the participants got knowledge about the survey. The online survey was spread on several different
social media platforms, via email and also over the Trainex of the university and Word-of-Mouth.
Only 4,9% of the participants accessed the survey over a link that they’ve received over email.
44,7% of the participants came from social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram and also
50,5% got knowledge from the survey and accessed it over a note on Trainex or by Word-of-Mouth
by their friends/colleagues. A huge amount of posts were made over social networks and also in
different groups to gain the attention of potential participants. A lot of follow-up messages were
sent as well, which might be the reason why a lot of people accessed the survey over social media
platforms. The last characteristic was the number of minutes that the participants usually spent on
Instagram. A mean of 85,36 minutes was calculated with a huge standard deviation of 129,34
minutes. On average, the participants spend nearly one and a half hours daily on Instagram and
there is a huge difference in how long each participant spends on the platform. Overall, our aim in
sampling was met and we could proceed in analyzing the collected data.
4.3. Results
The next step in our research was to analyze the data of our 103 participants. Chapter 4.3.1. gives
an overview of the different scales that were adapted to our study, shows which items were used
and how the Cronbach’s Alpha and the overall EFA were calculated and conducted. Each scale
has its table and shows the Cronbach’s Alpha, the mean and standard deviation of the scale, the
factor loadings and the means and standard deviations of the items. After that, chapter 4.3.2. will
have a look at the hypotheses testing. Again, we will have a look at the different hypotheses and
can test their values and significance. Most importantly, we can see if the hypotheses that we
developed at the beginning of our research can be confirmed or not.
29
arrange the sample more clearly and to narrow down countries that were not represented that
often. There were 18,4% of participants from Germany and only 1,9% with people from the rest of
Europe (e.g. Norway). From Asia (e.g. India, Vietnam, etc.) a whole of 73,8% of participants
conducted the survey. Only 1% of the participants were from America and 4,9% from Africa (e.g.
Cameroon, Nigeria, etc.). The HMKW is a place with international students from all over the world,
so it makes sense that the participants came from different places. Asia is one of the biggest
continents in the world with a total population of around 4,6 billion people and this might be the
reason why the biggest part of the participants was from different parts from Asia (Rosenberg,
2019, https://www.thoughtco.com/continents-ranked-by-size-and-population-4163436). Since the
country of origin did not influence the outcome of the survey, the distribution of the country of origin
wasn’t that important for our research. Another interesting outcome of the survey was to know how
the participants got knowledge about the survey. The online survey was spread on several different
social media platforms, via email and also over the Trainex of the university and Word-of-Mouth.
Only 4,9% of the participants accessed the survey over a link that they’ve received over email.
44,7% of the participants came from social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram and also
50,5% got knowledge from the survey and accessed it over a note on Trainex or by Word-of-Mouth
by their friends/colleagues. A huge amount of posts were made over social networks and also in
different groups to gain the attention of potential participants. A lot of follow-up messages were
sent as well, which might be the reason why a lot of people accessed the survey over social media
platforms. The last characteristic was the number of minutes that the participants usually spent on
Instagram. A mean of 85,36 minutes was calculated with a huge standard deviation of 129,34
minutes. On average, the participants spend nearly one and a half hours daily on Instagram and
there is a huge difference in how long each participant spends on the platform. Overall, our aim in
sampling was met and we could proceed in analyzing the collected data.
4.3. Results
The next step in our research was to analyze the data of our 103 participants. Chapter 4.3.1. gives
an overview of the different scales that were adapted to our study, shows which items were used
and how the Cronbach’s Alpha and the overall EFA were calculated and conducted. Each scale
has its table and shows the Cronbach’s Alpha, the mean and standard deviation of the scale, the
factor loadings and the means and standard deviations of the items. After that, chapter 4.3.2. will
have a look at the hypotheses testing. Again, we will have a look at the different hypotheses and
can test their values and significance. Most importantly, we can see if the hypotheses that we
developed at the beginning of our research can be confirmed or not.
29
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4.3.1. EFA & Cronbachs Alpha
The first scale is the narcissism scale from Emmons (1987), we chose five items and adapted them
to our study. We chose the items that suited our study the best and were highly interesting for our
research. The following table shows the Cronbachs Alpha that was calculated with SPSS, the
mean and standard deviation of the scale and also the factor loadings, means and standard
deviations of the items. We chose 5 items and adapted them to our research:
Scale: Narcissism; Alpha: 0,63; Scale M (SD): 2,891 (0,349)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I have a natural talent for influencing others. 0,745 2.96 (1,163)
I like to be the center of attention. 0,686 2,50 (1,195)
I am an extraordinary person. 0,598 2,84 (1,194)
Everybody likes to hear my stories. 0,596 3,41 (1,192)
I like to be complimented 0,544 2,74 (1,171)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 4. Factor Analysis: Narcissism
The first test that was conducted was Cronbach’s Alpha. For the narcissism scale, a Cronbach’s
Alpha of 0,63 was calculated. Cronbach's Alpha needs to be conducted first when using a scale of
other researchers to see if the scale is reliable or not (Eckstein, 2006, p. 299). Usually, Cronbach’s
Alpha needs to be calculated to see if the scale is reliable or not and it has to be over 0,7. Even
though the narcissism scale is not reaching 0,7, we’ve been talking to the professor who permitted
us that 0,63 or 0,62 is still reliable for our research and that the scale can be used for further
research. The mean of the scale is 2,891 with a standard deviation of 0,349. The outcome of this
scale was probably influenced by social desirability and the participants chose to keep their
answers neutral between “rather unlikely” and “undecided”. After all, the human being has a strong
urge to please other people and can’t admit that they are narcissistic. The item “I like to be
complimented” has a higher mean than the other items with 3,41 and a standard deviation of
1,192. What we can learn from this is that the participants rather like to get compliments. The
factor loadings are all above 0,5 which represents a very good correlation of factors and variables
(items). Especially the first two items in the table: ”I have a natural talent for influencing others.”,
and “I like to be the center of attention.” have a high loading with 0,745 and 0,686.
The next table shows the self-discrepancy scale from Lennox and Wolfe (1984) and has the same
structure as the table before. For the first test, we chose five items to conduct it and a Cronbach’s
Alpha of 0,599 was measured. In deleting the first item: “I’m not always the person that I show on
Instagram.”, an alpha of 0,62 was achieved and the professor permitted us to keep on working with
this alpha to measure the factor loadings, the means, and standard deviations:
Scale: Self-Discrepancy; Alpha: 0,62; Scale M (SD): 2,563 (0,356)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I try to pay attention to the reactions of others to my behavior on 0,792 2,59 (1,294)
30
The first scale is the narcissism scale from Emmons (1987), we chose five items and adapted them
to our study. We chose the items that suited our study the best and were highly interesting for our
research. The following table shows the Cronbachs Alpha that was calculated with SPSS, the
mean and standard deviation of the scale and also the factor loadings, means and standard
deviations of the items. We chose 5 items and adapted them to our research:
Scale: Narcissism; Alpha: 0,63; Scale M (SD): 2,891 (0,349)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I have a natural talent for influencing others. 0,745 2.96 (1,163)
I like to be the center of attention. 0,686 2,50 (1,195)
I am an extraordinary person. 0,598 2,84 (1,194)
Everybody likes to hear my stories. 0,596 3,41 (1,192)
I like to be complimented 0,544 2,74 (1,171)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 4. Factor Analysis: Narcissism
The first test that was conducted was Cronbach’s Alpha. For the narcissism scale, a Cronbach’s
Alpha of 0,63 was calculated. Cronbach's Alpha needs to be conducted first when using a scale of
other researchers to see if the scale is reliable or not (Eckstein, 2006, p. 299). Usually, Cronbach’s
Alpha needs to be calculated to see if the scale is reliable or not and it has to be over 0,7. Even
though the narcissism scale is not reaching 0,7, we’ve been talking to the professor who permitted
us that 0,63 or 0,62 is still reliable for our research and that the scale can be used for further
research. The mean of the scale is 2,891 with a standard deviation of 0,349. The outcome of this
scale was probably influenced by social desirability and the participants chose to keep their
answers neutral between “rather unlikely” and “undecided”. After all, the human being has a strong
urge to please other people and can’t admit that they are narcissistic. The item “I like to be
complimented” has a higher mean than the other items with 3,41 and a standard deviation of
1,192. What we can learn from this is that the participants rather like to get compliments. The
factor loadings are all above 0,5 which represents a very good correlation of factors and variables
(items). Especially the first two items in the table: ”I have a natural talent for influencing others.”,
and “I like to be the center of attention.” have a high loading with 0,745 and 0,686.
The next table shows the self-discrepancy scale from Lennox and Wolfe (1984) and has the same
structure as the table before. For the first test, we chose five items to conduct it and a Cronbach’s
Alpha of 0,599 was measured. In deleting the first item: “I’m not always the person that I show on
Instagram.”, an alpha of 0,62 was achieved and the professor permitted us to keep on working with
this alpha to measure the factor loadings, the means, and standard deviations:
Scale: Self-Discrepancy; Alpha: 0,62; Scale M (SD): 2,563 (0,356)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I try to pay attention to the reactions of others to my behavior on 0,792 2,59 (1,294)
30
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Instagram in order to avoid being out of place.
I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people on Instagram. 0,715 2,19 (1,237)
I tend to show my ideal self to the people on Instagram. 0,670 3,04 (1,306)
Different situations on Instagram can make me behave differently from
what I really am.
0,548 2,43 (1,185)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 5. Factor Analysis: Self-Discrepancy
The overall scale mean is 2,563 with a standard deviation of 0,356. This outcome of “rather
unlikely” answers can again be traced back to the social desirability that the participants were
longing for. The factor loadings are all above 0,5 and the items “I guess I put on a show to impress
or entertain people on Instagram.” and “I try to pay attention to the reactions of others to my
behavior on Instagram to avoid being out of place.” have high loadings of 0,715 and 0,792.
Self-Monitoring was measured with the following single item measure adapted from Lennox and
Wolfe (1984): ”When I feel that the image I’m portraying isn’t working I can readily change it on
Instagram to something that does.”. Factor loadings and Cronbach’s Alpha can not be reported.
The mean is 2,50 with a standard deviation of 1,228.
The next scale was adapted from Gibbons and Buunk (1999) and the next table shows the social
comparison scale which was firstly measured with four items. Unfortunately, the Cronbach's Alpha
was too low with 0,444, but in deleting the last item: “I never considered my situation in life relative
to that of other people on Instagram.”, we were able to raise the alpha to 0,746.
Scale: Social Comparison; Alpha: 0,746; Scale M (SD): 2,314 (0,137)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I often compare how I am doing socially (popularity, social skills) with
other people on Instagram.
0,833 2,38 (1,277)
I always pay a lot of attention to how I do things compared with how
others do things on Instagram.
0,806 2,41 (1,271)
If I want to find out how well I have done something, I compare what I
have done on Instagram with others have done.
0,803 2,16 (1,251)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 6. Factor Analysis: Social Comparison
Just like the two scales before, the participants were answering the questions with “rather unlikely”
and the overall scale mean is 2,314 with a standard deviation of 0,137. The factor loadings are all
above 0,8 and are highly correlative. The average of the participants answered these questions
with “rather unlikely”.
The next table shows the community scale adapted from Peterson, Speer, and McMillan (2007).
We chose 5 items to adapt them to our study. Cronbach’s Alpha was measured with 0,734 and a
scale mean of 3,179 and a standard deviation of 0,207:
31
I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people on Instagram. 0,715 2,19 (1,237)
I tend to show my ideal self to the people on Instagram. 0,670 3,04 (1,306)
Different situations on Instagram can make me behave differently from
what I really am.
0,548 2,43 (1,185)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 5. Factor Analysis: Self-Discrepancy
The overall scale mean is 2,563 with a standard deviation of 0,356. This outcome of “rather
unlikely” answers can again be traced back to the social desirability that the participants were
longing for. The factor loadings are all above 0,5 and the items “I guess I put on a show to impress
or entertain people on Instagram.” and “I try to pay attention to the reactions of others to my
behavior on Instagram to avoid being out of place.” have high loadings of 0,715 and 0,792.
Self-Monitoring was measured with the following single item measure adapted from Lennox and
Wolfe (1984): ”When I feel that the image I’m portraying isn’t working I can readily change it on
Instagram to something that does.”. Factor loadings and Cronbach’s Alpha can not be reported.
The mean is 2,50 with a standard deviation of 1,228.
The next scale was adapted from Gibbons and Buunk (1999) and the next table shows the social
comparison scale which was firstly measured with four items. Unfortunately, the Cronbach's Alpha
was too low with 0,444, but in deleting the last item: “I never considered my situation in life relative
to that of other people on Instagram.”, we were able to raise the alpha to 0,746.
Scale: Social Comparison; Alpha: 0,746; Scale M (SD): 2,314 (0,137)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I often compare how I am doing socially (popularity, social skills) with
other people on Instagram.
0,833 2,38 (1,277)
I always pay a lot of attention to how I do things compared with how
others do things on Instagram.
0,806 2,41 (1,271)
If I want to find out how well I have done something, I compare what I
have done on Instagram with others have done.
0,803 2,16 (1,251)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 6. Factor Analysis: Social Comparison
Just like the two scales before, the participants were answering the questions with “rather unlikely”
and the overall scale mean is 2,314 with a standard deviation of 0,137. The factor loadings are all
above 0,8 and are highly correlative. The average of the participants answered these questions
with “rather unlikely”.
The next table shows the community scale adapted from Peterson, Speer, and McMillan (2007).
We chose 5 items to adapt them to our study. Cronbach’s Alpha was measured with 0,734 and a
scale mean of 3,179 and a standard deviation of 0,207:
31
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Scale: Community; Alpha: 0,734; Scale M (SD): 3,179 (0,207)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I know about what goes on in Instagram community. 0,801 3,10 (1,249)
I belong in Instagram community. 0,799 2,88 (1,114)
I feel like a member on Instagram. 0,766 3,17 (1,276)
I keep in touch with others through Instagram. 0,609 3,39 (1,345)
People in the same Instagram community are good at influencing each
other.
0,486 3,36 (1,074)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 7. Factor Analysis: Community
The participants tend to answer with “more likely” to the questions and have mostly a factor loading
above 0,6 and even up to 0,8. The item “People in the same Instagram community are good at
influencing each other” sticks out of the rest with a factor loading of 0,486. This loading is still
acceptable but in comparison to the other loadings quite low. Therefore, the correlation of factor
and item is not that good than the correlation of the other items.
The scale adapted from Rubin (1983) was one of the most important ones for our research and we
were dividing them up to two scales. The first one was specialized in Escapism because we
wanted to see if escapism is a big factor when using Instagram. Three items were adapted to our
study. Cronbach’s Alpha was measured with 0,748 and the mean of the scale is 2,327 with a
standard deviation of 0,402.
Scale: Escapism; Alpha: 0,748; Scale M (SD): 2,327 (0,402)
I use Instagram… Factor Loadings M (SD)
…so I can get away from what I‘m doing. 0,881 2,69 (1,435)
…so I can forget about school or other things. 0,877 2,40 (1,451)
…so I can get away from the rest of the family and others. 0,671 1,89 (1,128)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 8. Factor Analysis: Escapism
The third item „I use Instagram so I can get away from the rest of the family and others” has a
mean of 1,89 and a standard deviation of 1,128. So we can say, that the participants chose the
answers “very unlikely” and “rather unlikely” for this item and that they are not using Instagram to
escape from family and others. Community is a huge factor when it comes to social networks and
most people are using Instagram to get in touch with other people, especially with family,
colleagues, and friends (Kenton, 2019, https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/social-
networking.asp, 04.03.2020). It makes sense, that the participants don’t see Instagram as a way to
escape from other people but rather to get in contact with them. The factor loadings are ranging
from 0,671 up to 0,881 which indicates a very good correlation.
The second part of the scale from Rubin (1983) was used to define different motives for using
Instagram. Three items belong to one overall group: relaxation, companionship, pass time, and
32
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I know about what goes on in Instagram community. 0,801 3,10 (1,249)
I belong in Instagram community. 0,799 2,88 (1,114)
I feel like a member on Instagram. 0,766 3,17 (1,276)
I keep in touch with others through Instagram. 0,609 3,39 (1,345)
People in the same Instagram community are good at influencing each
other.
0,486 3,36 (1,074)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 7. Factor Analysis: Community
The participants tend to answer with “more likely” to the questions and have mostly a factor loading
above 0,6 and even up to 0,8. The item “People in the same Instagram community are good at
influencing each other” sticks out of the rest with a factor loading of 0,486. This loading is still
acceptable but in comparison to the other loadings quite low. Therefore, the correlation of factor
and item is not that good than the correlation of the other items.
The scale adapted from Rubin (1983) was one of the most important ones for our research and we
were dividing them up to two scales. The first one was specialized in Escapism because we
wanted to see if escapism is a big factor when using Instagram. Three items were adapted to our
study. Cronbach’s Alpha was measured with 0,748 and the mean of the scale is 2,327 with a
standard deviation of 0,402.
Scale: Escapism; Alpha: 0,748; Scale M (SD): 2,327 (0,402)
I use Instagram… Factor Loadings M (SD)
…so I can get away from what I‘m doing. 0,881 2,69 (1,435)
…so I can forget about school or other things. 0,877 2,40 (1,451)
…so I can get away from the rest of the family and others. 0,671 1,89 (1,128)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 8. Factor Analysis: Escapism
The third item „I use Instagram so I can get away from the rest of the family and others” has a
mean of 1,89 and a standard deviation of 1,128. So we can say, that the participants chose the
answers “very unlikely” and “rather unlikely” for this item and that they are not using Instagram to
escape from family and others. Community is a huge factor when it comes to social networks and
most people are using Instagram to get in touch with other people, especially with family,
colleagues, and friends (Kenton, 2019, https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/social-
networking.asp, 04.03.2020). It makes sense, that the participants don’t see Instagram as a way to
escape from other people but rather to get in contact with them. The factor loadings are ranging
from 0,671 up to 0,881 which indicates a very good correlation.
The second part of the scale from Rubin (1983) was used to define different motives for using
Instagram. Three items belong to one overall group: relaxation, companionship, pass time, and
32
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entertainment. We had an overall of twelve items for this scale. Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated
with 0,865, while the mean of the scale is 3,536 with a standard deviation of 0,470.
Scale: Motives; Alpha: 0,865; Scale M (SD): 3,536 (0,470)
I use Instagram… Factor Loadings M (SD)
Relaxation
…because it relaxes me. 0,874 3,39 (1,206)
…because it's a pleasant rest. 0,823 3,34 (1,142)
…because it allows me to unwind. 0,592 3,38 (1,067)
Companionship
…because it makes me feel less lonely. 0,875 2,74 (1,298)
…so I won't have to be alone. 0,867 2,69 (1,336)
…when there's no one else to talk to or be with. 0,718 3,39 (1,293)
Pass Time
…because it passes the time away, particularly when I'm bored. 0,866 4,05 (1,013)
…when I have nothing better to do. 0,840 3,86 (1,112)
…because it gives me something to do to occupy my time. 0,822 3,82 (0,998)
Entertainment
…because it's enjoyable. 0,851 3,91 (0,981)
…because it entertains me. 0,837 4,11 (0,815)
…because it amuses me. 0,716 3,76 (1,062)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 9. Factor Analysis: Motives
What we see, when we are looking at the mean and standard deviations of the table is that most of
the participants are using Instagram to pass time (“I use Instagram because it passes the time
away, particularly when I’m bored.”) and also for entertainment purposes (“I use Instagram
because it entertains me.”). Both have a mean between 4,05 and 4,11 and the other items in these
categories have a mean between 3,5 and 3,9. The factor loadings are nearly all over 0,7 or 0,8,
just one item “I use Instagram because it allows me to unwind.” has a factor loading of 0,592. In
comparison to the other items, this one has not a high correlation as the other ones but since it is
over 0,5 it is good for our research.
The next scale was divided into two separate tables to form groups of positive and negative
emotions. We chose 6 items to adapt them to our research. The scale was adapted from Richins
(1997) and the positive emotions have a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0,7. The mean of the scale is 3,333
with a standard deviation of 0,266.
Scale: Positive Emotions; Alpha: 0,700; Scale M (SD): 3,333 (0,266)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I feel loved when my followers compliment me. 0,776 3,56 (1,117)
I feel encouraged when I get positive comments on Instagram. 0,730 3,74 (0,949)
I am thrilled to receive more likes than the previous post. 0,693 3,04 (1,343)
I feel happy to share my lifestyle on Instagram. 0,606 3,14 (1,268)
I feel optimistic when I follow my role models on Instagram. 0,519 3,22 (1,179)
I am surprised when my followers increase. 0,500 3,30 (1,274)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 10. Factor Analysis: Positive Emotions
33
with 0,865, while the mean of the scale is 3,536 with a standard deviation of 0,470.
Scale: Motives; Alpha: 0,865; Scale M (SD): 3,536 (0,470)
I use Instagram… Factor Loadings M (SD)
Relaxation
…because it relaxes me. 0,874 3,39 (1,206)
…because it's a pleasant rest. 0,823 3,34 (1,142)
…because it allows me to unwind. 0,592 3,38 (1,067)
Companionship
…because it makes me feel less lonely. 0,875 2,74 (1,298)
…so I won't have to be alone. 0,867 2,69 (1,336)
…when there's no one else to talk to or be with. 0,718 3,39 (1,293)
Pass Time
…because it passes the time away, particularly when I'm bored. 0,866 4,05 (1,013)
…when I have nothing better to do. 0,840 3,86 (1,112)
…because it gives me something to do to occupy my time. 0,822 3,82 (0,998)
Entertainment
…because it's enjoyable. 0,851 3,91 (0,981)
…because it entertains me. 0,837 4,11 (0,815)
…because it amuses me. 0,716 3,76 (1,062)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 9. Factor Analysis: Motives
What we see, when we are looking at the mean and standard deviations of the table is that most of
the participants are using Instagram to pass time (“I use Instagram because it passes the time
away, particularly when I’m bored.”) and also for entertainment purposes (“I use Instagram
because it entertains me.”). Both have a mean between 4,05 and 4,11 and the other items in these
categories have a mean between 3,5 and 3,9. The factor loadings are nearly all over 0,7 or 0,8,
just one item “I use Instagram because it allows me to unwind.” has a factor loading of 0,592. In
comparison to the other items, this one has not a high correlation as the other ones but since it is
over 0,5 it is good for our research.
The next scale was divided into two separate tables to form groups of positive and negative
emotions. We chose 6 items to adapt them to our research. The scale was adapted from Richins
(1997) and the positive emotions have a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0,7. The mean of the scale is 3,333
with a standard deviation of 0,266.
Scale: Positive Emotions; Alpha: 0,700; Scale M (SD): 3,333 (0,266)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I feel loved when my followers compliment me. 0,776 3,56 (1,117)
I feel encouraged when I get positive comments on Instagram. 0,730 3,74 (0,949)
I am thrilled to receive more likes than the previous post. 0,693 3,04 (1,343)
I feel happy to share my lifestyle on Instagram. 0,606 3,14 (1,268)
I feel optimistic when I follow my role models on Instagram. 0,519 3,22 (1,179)
I am surprised when my followers increase. 0,500 3,30 (1,274)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 10. Factor Analysis: Positive Emotions
33
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The mean is always over 3,0 and the standard deviation ranges between 0,94 and 1,34. Especially
the items “I feel encouraged when I get positive comments on Instagram.” And “I feel loved when
my followers compliment me.” have a mean over 3,5 and are tending to be answered with “more
likely” than the others. Factor loadings are all over 0,5 and those two items mentioned before have
also a strong correlation of 0,73 and 0,77 between factors and items.
In comparison to the negative emotions scale adapted from Richins (1997), we can see a tendency
to answer the questions with “rather unlikely”. Eight items were chosen to adapt them to our
research. Cronbach’s Alpha is 0,716 and the mean of the scale is 2,380 with a standard deviation
of 0,320:
Scale: Negative Emotions; Alpha: 0,716; Scale M (SD): 2,380 (0,320)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I feel nervous after posting a picture on Instagram. 0,816 2,42 (1,192)
Negative comments on my post irritate me. 0,748 2,98 (1,268)
I get angry when I get criticized for my Instagram content. 0,735 2,52 (1,282)
I get scared when too many people are watching my Instagram content. 0,710 2,38 (1,373)
Less number of followers makes me sad. 0,658 2,00 (1,111)
I am embarrassed to post pictures without filters on Instagram. 0,577 2,12 (1,182)
I get discontent if I don’t get enough likes/views on my Instagram
content.
0,568 2,07 (1,105)
I envy my friend when he/she posts a beautiful picture on Instagram. 0,557 2,55 (1,405)
M=Mean; SD=Standrad Deviation
Table 11. Factor Analysis: Negative Emotions
Again, social desirability is a huge factor when it comes to answering these questions truthfully. It
is difficult for human beings to admit weaknesses and especially negative emotions that are bound
to the usage of Instagram. They don’t want to imply that they are embarrassed when they “post
pictures without filters on Instagram” (M=2,12; SD=1,182), or that they are sad if they don’t have
many followers (M=2,00; SD=1,111), or get discontent if they “don’t get enough likes/views on my
Instagram content” (M=2,07; SD=1,105). That might be a reason, that the mean of the participants
has answered with “rather unlikely”. The factor loadings are ranging from 0,557 up to 0,816 and
have all in all a good correlation.
The next scale was from no other researcher and was developed by our group. Nevertheless, we
were measuring the Cronbach’s Alpha which was 0,72. We were using six items for this scale. The
mean of the scale is 2,942 with a standard deviation of 0,577.
Scale: User Behavior; Alpha: 0,720; Scale M (SD): 2,942 (0,577)
When I use Instagram, I… Factor Loadings M (SD)
…upload pictures. 0,753 3,48 (1,349)
…check likes and views. 0,714 3,64 (1,297)
…upload videos. 0,713 2,38 (1,299)
…seek for more followers. 0,610 2,22 (1,220)
…use filters. 0,608 2,80 (1,580)
…upload stories. 0,486 3,14 (1,401)
34
the items “I feel encouraged when I get positive comments on Instagram.” And “I feel loved when
my followers compliment me.” have a mean over 3,5 and are tending to be answered with “more
likely” than the others. Factor loadings are all over 0,5 and those two items mentioned before have
also a strong correlation of 0,73 and 0,77 between factors and items.
In comparison to the negative emotions scale adapted from Richins (1997), we can see a tendency
to answer the questions with “rather unlikely”. Eight items were chosen to adapt them to our
research. Cronbach’s Alpha is 0,716 and the mean of the scale is 2,380 with a standard deviation
of 0,320:
Scale: Negative Emotions; Alpha: 0,716; Scale M (SD): 2,380 (0,320)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I feel nervous after posting a picture on Instagram. 0,816 2,42 (1,192)
Negative comments on my post irritate me. 0,748 2,98 (1,268)
I get angry when I get criticized for my Instagram content. 0,735 2,52 (1,282)
I get scared when too many people are watching my Instagram content. 0,710 2,38 (1,373)
Less number of followers makes me sad. 0,658 2,00 (1,111)
I am embarrassed to post pictures without filters on Instagram. 0,577 2,12 (1,182)
I get discontent if I don’t get enough likes/views on my Instagram
content.
0,568 2,07 (1,105)
I envy my friend when he/she posts a beautiful picture on Instagram. 0,557 2,55 (1,405)
M=Mean; SD=Standrad Deviation
Table 11. Factor Analysis: Negative Emotions
Again, social desirability is a huge factor when it comes to answering these questions truthfully. It
is difficult for human beings to admit weaknesses and especially negative emotions that are bound
to the usage of Instagram. They don’t want to imply that they are embarrassed when they “post
pictures without filters on Instagram” (M=2,12; SD=1,182), or that they are sad if they don’t have
many followers (M=2,00; SD=1,111), or get discontent if they “don’t get enough likes/views on my
Instagram content” (M=2,07; SD=1,105). That might be a reason, that the mean of the participants
has answered with “rather unlikely”. The factor loadings are ranging from 0,557 up to 0,816 and
have all in all a good correlation.
The next scale was from no other researcher and was developed by our group. Nevertheless, we
were measuring the Cronbach’s Alpha which was 0,72. We were using six items for this scale. The
mean of the scale is 2,942 with a standard deviation of 0,577.
Scale: User Behavior; Alpha: 0,720; Scale M (SD): 2,942 (0,577)
When I use Instagram, I… Factor Loadings M (SD)
…upload pictures. 0,753 3,48 (1,349)
…check likes and views. 0,714 3,64 (1,297)
…upload videos. 0,713 2,38 (1,299)
…seek for more followers. 0,610 2,22 (1,220)
…use filters. 0,608 2,80 (1,580)
…upload stories. 0,486 3,14 (1,401)
34
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M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 12. Factor Analysis: User Behavior
As you can see, the participants are “more likely” to check likes and views when using Instagram,
the mean is 3,64 with a standard deviation of 1,297. Seeking for followers has the lowest mean of
2,22 what you can explain with social desirability and that people are not willing to admit that they
lookout for more followers. The factor loadings are all above 0,6, despite the item “When I use
Instagram, I upload stories” which has a loading of 0,486 and therefore not a very good but still
acceptable correlation.
The last scale was also made by our group and has four items that are focusing on the future
intentions of using Instagram. Cronbach’s Alpha is 0,780 and the mean of the scale is 3,643 with a
standard deviation of 0,164.
Scale: Future Intentions; Alpha: 0,780; Scale M (SD): 3,643 (0,164)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I would recommend using Instagram to my friends. 0,853 3,40 (1,199)
Overall, I’m very satisfied with Instagram. 0,833 3,74 (1,075)
I intend to keep on using Instagram. 0,798 3,72 (1,158)
I would like to explore new platforms in the future. 0,626 3,72 (1,240)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 13. Factor Analysis: Future Intentions
There is an upward tendency among the participants to “rather likely” keep on using Instagram
(M=3,72; SD=1,158), the satisfaction with the platform (M=3,74; SD=1,1075) and also to explore
other platforms in the future (M=3,72; SD=1,240). The factor loadings are over 0,626 and range up
to 0,853 which implies a very good correlation of factors and items. The next step of our research
was the analysis of our hypotheses to see if they can be confirmed or not.
4.3.2. Hypotheses Testing
To test our hypotheses, we used mostly simple linear regression but also multiple regression with
more than one independent variable influencing our dependent variable (see H3). The following
table gives you an overview of our hypotheses test.
Hypotheses Method Values and Significance Confirmed
H1 (Social ComparisonNegative Emotions) Regression 0,267*** Yes
H2 (NarcissismFuture intentions) Regression 0,107** Yes
H3 (Escapism, Community, Motives, Social
ComparisonPositive Emotions)
Regression 0,341*** Partly Yes,
partly No
H4 (Self DiscrepancyPositive Emotions) Regression 0,231*** Yes
H5 (User BehaviorPositive Emotions) Regression 0,161*** Yes
H6 (NarcissismSocial Comparison) Regression n.s. No
H7 (NarcissismHours/Minutes of using
Instagram)
Regression n.s. No
H8 (Positive EmotionsFuture intentions) Regression ,122*** Yes
n.s.=not significant, ***=significant at 0,1%, **=significant at 1%
35
Table 12. Factor Analysis: User Behavior
As you can see, the participants are “more likely” to check likes and views when using Instagram,
the mean is 3,64 with a standard deviation of 1,297. Seeking for followers has the lowest mean of
2,22 what you can explain with social desirability and that people are not willing to admit that they
lookout for more followers. The factor loadings are all above 0,6, despite the item “When I use
Instagram, I upload stories” which has a loading of 0,486 and therefore not a very good but still
acceptable correlation.
The last scale was also made by our group and has four items that are focusing on the future
intentions of using Instagram. Cronbach’s Alpha is 0,780 and the mean of the scale is 3,643 with a
standard deviation of 0,164.
Scale: Future Intentions; Alpha: 0,780; Scale M (SD): 3,643 (0,164)
Factor Loadings M (SD)
I would recommend using Instagram to my friends. 0,853 3,40 (1,199)
Overall, I’m very satisfied with Instagram. 0,833 3,74 (1,075)
I intend to keep on using Instagram. 0,798 3,72 (1,158)
I would like to explore new platforms in the future. 0,626 3,72 (1,240)
M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation
Table 13. Factor Analysis: Future Intentions
There is an upward tendency among the participants to “rather likely” keep on using Instagram
(M=3,72; SD=1,158), the satisfaction with the platform (M=3,74; SD=1,1075) and also to explore
other platforms in the future (M=3,72; SD=1,240). The factor loadings are over 0,626 and range up
to 0,853 which implies a very good correlation of factors and items. The next step of our research
was the analysis of our hypotheses to see if they can be confirmed or not.
4.3.2. Hypotheses Testing
To test our hypotheses, we used mostly simple linear regression but also multiple regression with
more than one independent variable influencing our dependent variable (see H3). The following
table gives you an overview of our hypotheses test.
Hypotheses Method Values and Significance Confirmed
H1 (Social ComparisonNegative Emotions) Regression 0,267*** Yes
H2 (NarcissismFuture intentions) Regression 0,107** Yes
H3 (Escapism, Community, Motives, Social
ComparisonPositive Emotions)
Regression 0,341*** Partly Yes,
partly No
H4 (Self DiscrepancyPositive Emotions) Regression 0,231*** Yes
H5 (User BehaviorPositive Emotions) Regression 0,161*** Yes
H6 (NarcissismSocial Comparison) Regression n.s. No
H7 (NarcissismHours/Minutes of using
Instagram)
Regression n.s. No
H8 (Positive EmotionsFuture intentions) Regression ,122*** Yes
n.s.=not significant, ***=significant at 0,1%, **=significant at 1%
35
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Table 14. Overview: Hypotheses Test
H1 was tested with simple linear regression analysis and was about the relationship of social
comparison with negative emotions. R square was 0,267, the regression was significant at 0,1%
with an overall F-Value of 36,72 which also indicates a statistical significance. H1 was confirmed
with a high correlation between the two variables. One can say that the more social comparison
takes place on Instagram, the higher the negative emotions.
Simple linear regression was also used to test H2 to analyze the relationship between Narcissism
and the intention to keep on using Instagram in the future. R square was 0,107, which is not that
high, but the regression was just like in H1 significant at 0,1%. The F-Value was 12,16, so all in all
H2 was confirmed and the higher the Narcissism, the higher the intention to keep on using
Instagram in the future.
H3 was tested with multiple linear regression and the influence of four independent variables on
one dependent variable was analyzed. The influence of escapism, community, motives
(e.g.entertainment, pass time, etc.), social comparison on positive emotions was investigated and
turned out to have a high r square of 0,341, which is a good fit. Community and the overall motives
had a significance of 0,1% and 1% while Escapism and social comparison had no significance at
all. The F-Value was 12,67. Hypothesis 3 was partly confirmed and not confirmed. Community and
the overall motives like pass time and entertainment are influencing the emotions positively while
escapism and social comparison have no significant influence on these emotions.
Hypotheses 4 to 8 were all tested with simple linear regression. Hypothesis 4 was testing the
relationship of self-discrepancy with positive emotions and had an r square of 0,231. The
regression was significant at 0,1% with a high F-Value of 30,27 and hypothesis 4 was confirmed:
the higher the display of the ideal self (self-discrepancy), the higher the positive emotions.
Hypothesis 5 was about the relationship between user behavior and positive emotions. R square
was 0,161, which is a low fit, but the regression was significant at 0,1% and F-Value was 19,31.
So, hypothesis 5 was also confirmed: the higher the user behavior (uploading pictures, videos,
etc.), the higher the positive emotions.
The relationship of narcissism with social comparison was investigated with hypothesis six. H6 had
a low r square (0,010) and the regression was not significant as well (with an F-Value of 1,02). The
hypothesis of the higher the Narcissism, the higher the social comparison was thereby not
confirmed.
Hypothesis 7 was about the relationship between narcissism and hours/minutes that the users
spent on Instagram. The r square was even lower than in H6 (0,004) and the regression was also
not significant (with an F-Value of 0,36). Hypothesis 7 was not confirmed, narcissism has no
influence on the hours/minutes that the users spend on the platform.
36
H1 was tested with simple linear regression analysis and was about the relationship of social
comparison with negative emotions. R square was 0,267, the regression was significant at 0,1%
with an overall F-Value of 36,72 which also indicates a statistical significance. H1 was confirmed
with a high correlation between the two variables. One can say that the more social comparison
takes place on Instagram, the higher the negative emotions.
Simple linear regression was also used to test H2 to analyze the relationship between Narcissism
and the intention to keep on using Instagram in the future. R square was 0,107, which is not that
high, but the regression was just like in H1 significant at 0,1%. The F-Value was 12,16, so all in all
H2 was confirmed and the higher the Narcissism, the higher the intention to keep on using
Instagram in the future.
H3 was tested with multiple linear regression and the influence of four independent variables on
one dependent variable was analyzed. The influence of escapism, community, motives
(e.g.entertainment, pass time, etc.), social comparison on positive emotions was investigated and
turned out to have a high r square of 0,341, which is a good fit. Community and the overall motives
had a significance of 0,1% and 1% while Escapism and social comparison had no significance at
all. The F-Value was 12,67. Hypothesis 3 was partly confirmed and not confirmed. Community and
the overall motives like pass time and entertainment are influencing the emotions positively while
escapism and social comparison have no significant influence on these emotions.
Hypotheses 4 to 8 were all tested with simple linear regression. Hypothesis 4 was testing the
relationship of self-discrepancy with positive emotions and had an r square of 0,231. The
regression was significant at 0,1% with a high F-Value of 30,27 and hypothesis 4 was confirmed:
the higher the display of the ideal self (self-discrepancy), the higher the positive emotions.
Hypothesis 5 was about the relationship between user behavior and positive emotions. R square
was 0,161, which is a low fit, but the regression was significant at 0,1% and F-Value was 19,31.
So, hypothesis 5 was also confirmed: the higher the user behavior (uploading pictures, videos,
etc.), the higher the positive emotions.
The relationship of narcissism with social comparison was investigated with hypothesis six. H6 had
a low r square (0,010) and the regression was not significant as well (with an F-Value of 1,02). The
hypothesis of the higher the Narcissism, the higher the social comparison was thereby not
confirmed.
Hypothesis 7 was about the relationship between narcissism and hours/minutes that the users
spent on Instagram. The r square was even lower than in H6 (0,004) and the regression was also
not significant (with an F-Value of 0,36). Hypothesis 7 was not confirmed, narcissism has no
influence on the hours/minutes that the users spend on the platform.
36
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Last but not least, hypothesis 8 was testing the relationship of positive emotions with the intention
to keep on using Instagram in the future. R square was not that high with 0,122, but the regression
was highly significant at 0,1% with an F-Value of 14,09. Hypothesis 8 stated that the higher the
positive emotions, the higher the intention to keep on using Instagram in the future and was
confirmed.
4.4. Discussion
Our quantitative study aimed to eliminate potential design weaknesses that appeared during our
qualitative research and to investigate further on topics that were interesting for our overall
research but couldn’t be answered in our previous research.
During the qualitative study, we’ve found out that social comparison can affect both positive and
negative emotions. The first hypothesis of our quantitative study confirmed those previous findings:
social comparison has especially an effect on negative emotions. This outcome coincides with
other researchers that we’ve discussed in our literature review. Other researchers found out that
social comparison on Instagram was significantly negatively associated with depressive symptoms
(Lup et al., 2015).
The second hypothesis is about narcissism and how it positively influences the future intentions of
keeping on using Instagram. This hypothesis aligns with our findings from our qualitative research
and the findings of other researchers. Narcissism and self-flattery is a motivation for the
participants to keep on using Instagram in the future. Sheldon and Bryant (2015) stated that
narcissism is positively related to most motives for Instagram use and that longing for “coolness” is
one of the main reasons.
With our third hypothesis, we wanted to find out the relationship between several independent
variables like escapism, community, motives, and social comparison and how it influences the
dependent variable positive emotions. Our hypothesis was partly confirmed and partly not
confirmed, we found out that community and overall motives, especially entertainment and pass
time, have a high significance and are affecting positive emotions, while social comparison and
escapism don’t. It also partly confirmed and partly contradicted previous findings. In our qualitative
research, we found out that motivations like community, inspiration, curiosity, narcissism, and
information have a higher frequency than other motives like entertainment and encouragement.
Community is an important factor in our qualitative research and has the highest frequency.
Entertainment and pass time didn’t have a high frequency in qualitative research, but during our
quantitative research, we found out that these internal motivations are the most important
motivations for using Instagram for our participants. These findings align with our understanding of
the uses and gratifications theory and that people are choosing specific media based on how their
37
to keep on using Instagram in the future. R square was not that high with 0,122, but the regression
was highly significant at 0,1% with an F-Value of 14,09. Hypothesis 8 stated that the higher the
positive emotions, the higher the intention to keep on using Instagram in the future and was
confirmed.
4.4. Discussion
Our quantitative study aimed to eliminate potential design weaknesses that appeared during our
qualitative research and to investigate further on topics that were interesting for our overall
research but couldn’t be answered in our previous research.
During the qualitative study, we’ve found out that social comparison can affect both positive and
negative emotions. The first hypothesis of our quantitative study confirmed those previous findings:
social comparison has especially an effect on negative emotions. This outcome coincides with
other researchers that we’ve discussed in our literature review. Other researchers found out that
social comparison on Instagram was significantly negatively associated with depressive symptoms
(Lup et al., 2015).
The second hypothesis is about narcissism and how it positively influences the future intentions of
keeping on using Instagram. This hypothesis aligns with our findings from our qualitative research
and the findings of other researchers. Narcissism and self-flattery is a motivation for the
participants to keep on using Instagram in the future. Sheldon and Bryant (2015) stated that
narcissism is positively related to most motives for Instagram use and that longing for “coolness” is
one of the main reasons.
With our third hypothesis, we wanted to find out the relationship between several independent
variables like escapism, community, motives, and social comparison and how it influences the
dependent variable positive emotions. Our hypothesis was partly confirmed and partly not
confirmed, we found out that community and overall motives, especially entertainment and pass
time, have a high significance and are affecting positive emotions, while social comparison and
escapism don’t. It also partly confirmed and partly contradicted previous findings. In our qualitative
research, we found out that motivations like community, inspiration, curiosity, narcissism, and
information have a higher frequency than other motives like entertainment and encouragement.
Community is an important factor in our qualitative research and has the highest frequency.
Entertainment and pass time didn’t have a high frequency in qualitative research, but during our
quantitative research, we found out that these internal motivations are the most important
motivations for using Instagram for our participants. These findings align with our understanding of
the uses and gratifications theory and that people are choosing specific media based on how their
37
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needs look like at the moment (Blumler & Katz, 1974) and if it gives them a positive feeling while
using it.
Hypothesis four was part of our process to eliminate previous design weaknesses and because we
didn’t do much research on self-discrepancy before. The hypothesis was confirmed and stated that
self-discrepancy, especially portraying an ideal self on Instagram rather than the actual self,
influences positive emotions. Other researchers found out that Instagram usage hurts body
satisfaction and that self-discrepancy and self-schema mediates that effect (Ahadzadeh et al.,
2016). In a way, this is contradicting the findings of our quantitative research but one must keep in
mind that we were investigating how people feel if they portray their ideal self on Instagram and not
if they are comparing their actual selves with an ideal self of a celebrity on the platform. On the
other hand, the findings of these researchers are confirmed with our outcome because the
participants wouldn’t have positive emotions if they are portraying a fake image on Instagram and
those participants are already affected in their body satisfaction. Otherwise, they would portray
their actual selves on Instagram.
The fifth hypothesis was confirmed as well and says that the more the users are engaging on the
platform like uploading pictures or videos, the more positive emotions will be released in the
process. As it turned out in the qualitative study, we’ve found out that engaging on Instagram is a
good way for the users to express their feelings and to connect with friends, family or other people
they know. Regarding the findings of Pittmann and Reich of 2016, it can be confirmed that image-
based social media use may decrease loneliness, while happiness and satisfaction with life may
increase. Therefore, the previous findings can be confirmed.
Hypothesis number six, the higher the narcissism the higher the social comparison, wasn’t
confirmed. It is an interesting outcome because even though narcissistic people are seen as
having a strong personality, they often lack a core self and their self-image and thinking and
behavior are other-oriented to stabilize and validate their self-esteem (Lancer, 2018,
https://www.psychologytoday.com/, 09.02.2020). In our qualitative research, we suggested that the
participants experience social envy and a sense of low self-evaluation when they’re comparing
themselves to other people which standards they can never reach. Other researchers found out
that an increasing or decreasing of positive effects is based on how much a user tends to engage
in social comparison (De Vries et al., 2018). Therefore, the outcome of our quantitative research
was unexpected and it contradicted our previous findings and assumptions that a narcissistic
person would tend more likely to do more social comparisons than other people.
Hypothesis number seven was also not confirmed and stated that a high amount of narcissism in a
person increases the hours/minutes the user is spending on Instagram. This outcome was also
quite unexpected because narcissism is one of the main reasons for people to use Instagram and
to spend more time on it like we’ve found out in our qualitative research and like other researchers
stated in their studies (Sheldon & Bryant, 2015). A positive relationship between narcissism and
38
using it.
Hypothesis four was part of our process to eliminate previous design weaknesses and because we
didn’t do much research on self-discrepancy before. The hypothesis was confirmed and stated that
self-discrepancy, especially portraying an ideal self on Instagram rather than the actual self,
influences positive emotions. Other researchers found out that Instagram usage hurts body
satisfaction and that self-discrepancy and self-schema mediates that effect (Ahadzadeh et al.,
2016). In a way, this is contradicting the findings of our quantitative research but one must keep in
mind that we were investigating how people feel if they portray their ideal self on Instagram and not
if they are comparing their actual selves with an ideal self of a celebrity on the platform. On the
other hand, the findings of these researchers are confirmed with our outcome because the
participants wouldn’t have positive emotions if they are portraying a fake image on Instagram and
those participants are already affected in their body satisfaction. Otherwise, they would portray
their actual selves on Instagram.
The fifth hypothesis was confirmed as well and says that the more the users are engaging on the
platform like uploading pictures or videos, the more positive emotions will be released in the
process. As it turned out in the qualitative study, we’ve found out that engaging on Instagram is a
good way for the users to express their feelings and to connect with friends, family or other people
they know. Regarding the findings of Pittmann and Reich of 2016, it can be confirmed that image-
based social media use may decrease loneliness, while happiness and satisfaction with life may
increase. Therefore, the previous findings can be confirmed.
Hypothesis number six, the higher the narcissism the higher the social comparison, wasn’t
confirmed. It is an interesting outcome because even though narcissistic people are seen as
having a strong personality, they often lack a core self and their self-image and thinking and
behavior are other-oriented to stabilize and validate their self-esteem (Lancer, 2018,
https://www.psychologytoday.com/, 09.02.2020). In our qualitative research, we suggested that the
participants experience social envy and a sense of low self-evaluation when they’re comparing
themselves to other people which standards they can never reach. Other researchers found out
that an increasing or decreasing of positive effects is based on how much a user tends to engage
in social comparison (De Vries et al., 2018). Therefore, the outcome of our quantitative research
was unexpected and it contradicted our previous findings and assumptions that a narcissistic
person would tend more likely to do more social comparisons than other people.
Hypothesis number seven was also not confirmed and stated that a high amount of narcissism in a
person increases the hours/minutes the user is spending on Instagram. This outcome was also
quite unexpected because narcissism is one of the main reasons for people to use Instagram and
to spend more time on it like we’ve found out in our qualitative research and like other researchers
stated in their studies (Sheldon & Bryant, 2015). A positive relationship between narcissism and
38
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Instagram was investigated by Sheldon and Bryant in 2015. Hence, the findings of our quantitative
research contradicted the findings of our qualitative research and those of other researchers.
Last but not least, hypothesis number eight was confirmed and stated that positive emotions have
a positive influence on future intentions to keep on using Instagram. Even though future intentions
was one of the categories that wasn’t supported by the results of other studies that we’ve used
during our research, our qualitative research suggested that positive experiences and by satisfying
a specific need through the platform might extend the time that the user spends on the platform
even in the future. Therefore, our findings confirmed the results of our qualitative research and it is
confirmed by Bentler and Speckart in 1979 who found out that the frequency of previous behavior
can be used as a predictor for future behavior.
All in all, our quantitative research was a bit more difficult to conduct because of the factor of the
social desirability of our participants. Especially the variables narcissism, social comparison, and
self-discrepancy are responsible to often generate inaccurate survey estimates which are distorted
by social desirability bias (Krumpal, 2011, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257642522,
09.03.2020). Some of our findings are probably inaccurate because of the self-presentation
concerns of our survey participants and might also be the reason why the hypotheses that included
certain variables had a different outcome than expected. We designed our survey in a way to
guarantee our participants an environment of pure anonymity and to encourage them to answer
more honestly but it turned out to be more difficult because people tend to make wrong statements
about their behavior if they are seeking social approval.
5.1. Summary
According to the whole Instagram analysis research study, there was the employment of the usage
of qualitative research methods as well as the use of quantitative research methods somewhat an
approach termed as the research design. There was an initial start of the qualitative research
methods and this was then followed by the quantitative research methods (Phua, Jin & Kim, 2020).
More weight though, of the general research on Instagram usage by different groups, categories,
ages and sexes of individuals was largely based on the quantitative section but there was a very
important need of the qualitative section to be looked at first. The reason for the qualitative method
of research to be looked at in the first place was, it paved way on what and influenced how the
quantitative direction would take (Kim & Phua, 2020). Data is collected through the qualitative
methods of research study and the analysed through quantitative methods. In the qualitative
aspect, the collection of dataset was done through the conduction of interviews, and the findings
were coded and analysed rather thematically (Tomorn & Bao, 2020). The qualitative even though
must have been enough, it was not that sufficient for a single use and had to be followed by the
quantitative methods only in order to help eliminate any potential weaknesses that might have
risen when conducting the qualitative method.
39
research contradicted the findings of our qualitative research and those of other researchers.
Last but not least, hypothesis number eight was confirmed and stated that positive emotions have
a positive influence on future intentions to keep on using Instagram. Even though future intentions
was one of the categories that wasn’t supported by the results of other studies that we’ve used
during our research, our qualitative research suggested that positive experiences and by satisfying
a specific need through the platform might extend the time that the user spends on the platform
even in the future. Therefore, our findings confirmed the results of our qualitative research and it is
confirmed by Bentler and Speckart in 1979 who found out that the frequency of previous behavior
can be used as a predictor for future behavior.
All in all, our quantitative research was a bit more difficult to conduct because of the factor of the
social desirability of our participants. Especially the variables narcissism, social comparison, and
self-discrepancy are responsible to often generate inaccurate survey estimates which are distorted
by social desirability bias (Krumpal, 2011, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257642522,
09.03.2020). Some of our findings are probably inaccurate because of the self-presentation
concerns of our survey participants and might also be the reason why the hypotheses that included
certain variables had a different outcome than expected. We designed our survey in a way to
guarantee our participants an environment of pure anonymity and to encourage them to answer
more honestly but it turned out to be more difficult because people tend to make wrong statements
about their behavior if they are seeking social approval.
5.1. Summary
According to the whole Instagram analysis research study, there was the employment of the usage
of qualitative research methods as well as the use of quantitative research methods somewhat an
approach termed as the research design. There was an initial start of the qualitative research
methods and this was then followed by the quantitative research methods (Phua, Jin & Kim, 2020).
More weight though, of the general research on Instagram usage by different groups, categories,
ages and sexes of individuals was largely based on the quantitative section but there was a very
important need of the qualitative section to be looked at first. The reason for the qualitative method
of research to be looked at in the first place was, it paved way on what and influenced how the
quantitative direction would take (Kim & Phua, 2020). Data is collected through the qualitative
methods of research study and the analysed through quantitative methods. In the qualitative
aspect, the collection of dataset was done through the conduction of interviews, and the findings
were coded and analysed rather thematically (Tomorn & Bao, 2020). The qualitative even though
must have been enough, it was not that sufficient for a single use and had to be followed by the
quantitative methods only in order to help eliminate any potential weaknesses that might have
risen when conducting the qualitative method.
39
![Document Page](https://desklib.com/media/document/docfile/pages/social-comparison-theory/2024/09/29/20847793-fc3a-46cd-bd8d-e4011fc5f782-page-40.webp)
Interview data collection process made which is considered as a qualitative technique when it
comes to data collection, it allowed for each and every participant to tell their very own stories on
how they felt as behaviours when it came to the use of Instagram as a social media platform. This
by far is a better approach of data collection as it allowed for the truth telling through the data that
was collected and it was a true reflection of what was happening on the ground and therefore the
analytical results could be relied upon in the long run (Hong et al. 2020). The fact that the data
collection guidelines, were all reviewed by the supervisor who preceded the research and this help
by ensuring that a more relevant guideline by the elimination of the extra irrelevant questions that
were somewhat taken to be repetitive and of less weight.
Then the relevant questions were formulated and this was then deduced to asking questions such
as what actually motivates Instagram users to use it as well as what they felt when it came to
having a high number of followers and how their followers reacted to the posts that they do post.
Questions were also geared to know whether they frequently used the Instagram more often and
why and their preference to other social media platforms as well. Of the data given there were
different table formats that were crafted in order to code the actual results that were deduced.
The aim here therefore was to extract the feelings that those who actually use Instagram have
including; motivation, social comparison, habits, personality and frequency. In a way there were
different effects from all the data that were extracted qualitatively with others actually finding the
platforms giving them motivation, self-acceptance, comparison amongst others which helped them
live their lives positively. The other effect which was negative and that made the individuals
actually have low self-esteem as there was envy and in this they would see individuals who
actually have higher lives and yet these envious individuals end up admiring and feeling bad that
they cannot in any way afford such type of lives (Din, Ramli, & Bakar, 2020).
When it came to the quantitative research more numerical based type pf responses in the data
collection process will be focussed on. On the other hand, wordier hence qualitative approaches
were focused on and that in no way can be included in this case in the long run. In cases where
irrelevant findings were and no link between the researcher and the findings, there was a clear
need to set up hypotheses. The need for this was to actually confirm if the findings of the
researchers could actually intersect with the findings of the research or if they could diverge by all
means. There was the need to see if independent variables that were developed had negative or
positive emotions on the individuals that were taken in for considerations for study. When it comes
to the actual results that were realized after the regression analysis that were set and the results
realized, then it would definitely lead us to the difference in results in terms of the past researchers
results and currently. This is because of the fact that the actual sample that the researchers took
and focused on was greatly different from the sample that the research we are handling entirely
focused on in the long run (Modica, 2020).
40
comes to data collection, it allowed for each and every participant to tell their very own stories on
how they felt as behaviours when it came to the use of Instagram as a social media platform. This
by far is a better approach of data collection as it allowed for the truth telling through the data that
was collected and it was a true reflection of what was happening on the ground and therefore the
analytical results could be relied upon in the long run (Hong et al. 2020). The fact that the data
collection guidelines, were all reviewed by the supervisor who preceded the research and this help
by ensuring that a more relevant guideline by the elimination of the extra irrelevant questions that
were somewhat taken to be repetitive and of less weight.
Then the relevant questions were formulated and this was then deduced to asking questions such
as what actually motivates Instagram users to use it as well as what they felt when it came to
having a high number of followers and how their followers reacted to the posts that they do post.
Questions were also geared to know whether they frequently used the Instagram more often and
why and their preference to other social media platforms as well. Of the data given there were
different table formats that were crafted in order to code the actual results that were deduced.
The aim here therefore was to extract the feelings that those who actually use Instagram have
including; motivation, social comparison, habits, personality and frequency. In a way there were
different effects from all the data that were extracted qualitatively with others actually finding the
platforms giving them motivation, self-acceptance, comparison amongst others which helped them
live their lives positively. The other effect which was negative and that made the individuals
actually have low self-esteem as there was envy and in this they would see individuals who
actually have higher lives and yet these envious individuals end up admiring and feeling bad that
they cannot in any way afford such type of lives (Din, Ramli, & Bakar, 2020).
When it came to the quantitative research more numerical based type pf responses in the data
collection process will be focussed on. On the other hand, wordier hence qualitative approaches
were focused on and that in no way can be included in this case in the long run. In cases where
irrelevant findings were and no link between the researcher and the findings, there was a clear
need to set up hypotheses. The need for this was to actually confirm if the findings of the
researchers could actually intersect with the findings of the research or if they could diverge by all
means. There was the need to see if independent variables that were developed had negative or
positive emotions on the individuals that were taken in for considerations for study. When it comes
to the actual results that were realized after the regression analysis that were set and the results
realized, then it would definitely lead us to the difference in results in terms of the past researchers
results and currently. This is because of the fact that the actual sample that the researchers took
and focused on was greatly different from the sample that the research we are handling entirely
focused on in the long run (Modica, 2020).
40
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There were several questions that were answered by different interviewees, but in all that there
were mixed reactions. Let’s have a step by step look into the way the answers should have been
made better and more explanatory. In the boxes that we have, the boxes that do explain a lot more
about the variables that were used in the answering, we also have very many mixed reaction on
individuals’ usage of Instagram. Walking through the variable boxes, one after the other and
starting off from table 2, the motivation variable, what actually makes people actually tend to use
Instagram, we found out that responses such as; inspiration, curiosity, narcissism, information,
entertainment and encouragement were given as responses for one of the variable that was set to
be examined. The only problem that stands is the fact that, there are explanations as to what these
specific variables’ responses even with other similar boxes mean but there is literally not enough
hypothesis that is set on each and every single response reaction that was given by each and
every interviewee. Had there been hypothesis setting on all of the responses, we would have a had
a better understanding on what each and every response as what each and every response under
each and every variable do represent in a quantitative manner. There were hypothesis lists that
were set yes and these were only in quantitative response to a few of the responses that were
given by the interviewees. These hypothesis yes were very informative and provided higher intel
on the respective responses to which they were provided for but collectively they were not in any
way that extensive and therefore the information that they tend to qualitatively represent is
narrower as there is limited collectiveness.
There are stronger qualitative illustrations given on the data that was collected and this looks and
is more informative. Take for instance, there are very many differences when it comes to the
effects that Instagram bring upon those that are youths (those who use Instagram) and more
specifically the women. There are illustrations on how those who actually follow celebrities who
post things that make the very celebrities to look like they fancy themselves, leaves the followers
with higher insecurity, dissatisfaction as well as higher social comparison and all these lead us to
an insecure state as a continent. This largely would affect those that are following highly prominent
individuals especially in terms of cash and the rest. Therefore, it is advisable that one stays
conscious when following such people. The other illustration that has been made is amongst those
people that follow highly motivational people from where the followers seek motivation and how to
live their daily lives. This in the long run makes them live through the next day with higher hopes
that they will be making it to the next step and therefore are always positive. Staying positive
makes them accept themselves on a daily basis and this in the long run could lead to more positive
groups, states and therefore a more positive world that works to improve the daily lives. One such
motivational practices would be gym and exercise videos that sets followers on their feet and they
are therefore able to have their lives rolling around by keeping fit, burning toxic substances and
having the feeling of doing justice to their body systems.
41
were mixed reactions. Let’s have a step by step look into the way the answers should have been
made better and more explanatory. In the boxes that we have, the boxes that do explain a lot more
about the variables that were used in the answering, we also have very many mixed reaction on
individuals’ usage of Instagram. Walking through the variable boxes, one after the other and
starting off from table 2, the motivation variable, what actually makes people actually tend to use
Instagram, we found out that responses such as; inspiration, curiosity, narcissism, information,
entertainment and encouragement were given as responses for one of the variable that was set to
be examined. The only problem that stands is the fact that, there are explanations as to what these
specific variables’ responses even with other similar boxes mean but there is literally not enough
hypothesis that is set on each and every single response reaction that was given by each and
every interviewee. Had there been hypothesis setting on all of the responses, we would have a had
a better understanding on what each and every response as what each and every response under
each and every variable do represent in a quantitative manner. There were hypothesis lists that
were set yes and these were only in quantitative response to a few of the responses that were
given by the interviewees. These hypothesis yes were very informative and provided higher intel
on the respective responses to which they were provided for but collectively they were not in any
way that extensive and therefore the information that they tend to qualitatively represent is
narrower as there is limited collectiveness.
There are stronger qualitative illustrations given on the data that was collected and this looks and
is more informative. Take for instance, there are very many differences when it comes to the
effects that Instagram bring upon those that are youths (those who use Instagram) and more
specifically the women. There are illustrations on how those who actually follow celebrities who
post things that make the very celebrities to look like they fancy themselves, leaves the followers
with higher insecurity, dissatisfaction as well as higher social comparison and all these lead us to
an insecure state as a continent. This largely would affect those that are following highly prominent
individuals especially in terms of cash and the rest. Therefore, it is advisable that one stays
conscious when following such people. The other illustration that has been made is amongst those
people that follow highly motivational people from where the followers seek motivation and how to
live their daily lives. This in the long run makes them live through the next day with higher hopes
that they will be making it to the next step and therefore are always positive. Staying positive
makes them accept themselves on a daily basis and this in the long run could lead to more positive
groups, states and therefore a more positive world that works to improve the daily lives. One such
motivational practices would be gym and exercise videos that sets followers on their feet and they
are therefore able to have their lives rolling around by keeping fit, burning toxic substances and
having the feeling of doing justice to their body systems.
41
![Document Page](https://desklib.com/media/document/docfile/pages/social-comparison-theory/2024/09/29/09ee2c3e-0e57-4204-b8b4-52e8c338f1b1-page-42.webp)
In any literary structure, there is nothing as captivating as an informative and a well-structured
research paper. Looking at the lay out of this research paper, there were steps that were set out to
collect the qualitative data. There was the need to set out the questions that were to be asked,
after this, the very questions were taken to the supervisor and therefore were re-evaluated and the
irrelevant and the repetitive ones were dropped off the questions list. After this, during the interview
session, the interviewees had to be asked if they were comfortable with the very process for which
they were to be taken through and then assurance for not disclosing their information was made to
them. This then ensured comfort to the interviewees and this greatly ensures truthful answers.
After the collection of the answers, there was a need for encoding the actual answers under tables
with variables and the actual explanations to these variables in the long run. The analysis of the
coded answers was also done in a stepwise manner with nothing left to chance and these gave a
better information inclusion and conclusion in the long run.
5.2. Limitations and Implications of Research
This is not so much an issue but would be a very big issue to those that are related and actually
emanates from other disciplines and would want to understand the content of study in depth and
therefore there are no directive statements that readers would use as references. There are lots of
mathematical and statistical terms especially when it comes to the quantitative analysis section,
where data is to be collected, sampled accordingly, analysed and then interpreted. The
interpretation processes are full of jargons that are only related to quantitative studies and statistics
and there needs to be a section even in the appendix, if by any chance the literature will be read
by no statistics experts, to help explain to them what they are getting into to read and to consume
in any case they are confronted by vocabularies that they do not understand as well. Therefore, in
this case too there is some levels of discrimination and luck of inclusion because there is literally
lack of inclusion when it comes to other specialists.
The final implication and limitation that must be looked into without doubt in this case is the data
collection sample of people that were used, it must have been better if the sample would have
been made to grow bigger and better because as it stands, Instagram is used in almost each and
every country as we are living in a technology error. Failure of doing this must have been
implication in the sense that only more developed countries and only specific ones in the group
were looked at in the long run. Inclusion of such a narrow set of individuals from these set of
countries, does not give the realest picture of all that is there and that gives a true sense of the
usage of Instagram at all in any way. Total inclusion of individuals across the globe would add
more weight to the findings as well as the analysis deduced in the long run.
5.3. Implications for Practice
42
research paper. Looking at the lay out of this research paper, there were steps that were set out to
collect the qualitative data. There was the need to set out the questions that were to be asked,
after this, the very questions were taken to the supervisor and therefore were re-evaluated and the
irrelevant and the repetitive ones were dropped off the questions list. After this, during the interview
session, the interviewees had to be asked if they were comfortable with the very process for which
they were to be taken through and then assurance for not disclosing their information was made to
them. This then ensured comfort to the interviewees and this greatly ensures truthful answers.
After the collection of the answers, there was a need for encoding the actual answers under tables
with variables and the actual explanations to these variables in the long run. The analysis of the
coded answers was also done in a stepwise manner with nothing left to chance and these gave a
better information inclusion and conclusion in the long run.
5.2. Limitations and Implications of Research
This is not so much an issue but would be a very big issue to those that are related and actually
emanates from other disciplines and would want to understand the content of study in depth and
therefore there are no directive statements that readers would use as references. There are lots of
mathematical and statistical terms especially when it comes to the quantitative analysis section,
where data is to be collected, sampled accordingly, analysed and then interpreted. The
interpretation processes are full of jargons that are only related to quantitative studies and statistics
and there needs to be a section even in the appendix, if by any chance the literature will be read
by no statistics experts, to help explain to them what they are getting into to read and to consume
in any case they are confronted by vocabularies that they do not understand as well. Therefore, in
this case too there is some levels of discrimination and luck of inclusion because there is literally
lack of inclusion when it comes to other specialists.
The final implication and limitation that must be looked into without doubt in this case is the data
collection sample of people that were used, it must have been better if the sample would have
been made to grow bigger and better because as it stands, Instagram is used in almost each and
every country as we are living in a technology error. Failure of doing this must have been
implication in the sense that only more developed countries and only specific ones in the group
were looked at in the long run. Inclusion of such a narrow set of individuals from these set of
countries, does not give the realest picture of all that is there and that gives a true sense of the
usage of Instagram at all in any way. Total inclusion of individuals across the globe would add
more weight to the findings as well as the analysis deduced in the long run.
5.3. Implications for Practice
42
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It is very evident what have been given as answers by the interviewees on each and every
question. The women/ youth ladies that were interviewed had issues that were ranging from the
positive sides to the negative sides. On the negative side there were factors such as ladies
experiencing high social comparison for the fact that they are following those celebrities or
individuals that constantly flaunt how successful they are, what they have materially as well as a
good life they are living on social media. By what they have, if they are female celebrities, then by
show casing a gorgeous body shape and all, there will always be an envy, low self-esteem and
high social comparison from followers to her. All that has been explained and is understandable.
What on the other hand that has not been explained and that should be looked at critically is how
they that follow such bragging individuals should handle themselves after emotional degradation.
The pieces of advice on what they need to do in order to maintain a high state of morale has not
been offered. Or if there is a way that different groups handle low morale as to these kind of posts,
that by any chance has not been shared and therefore no 360 degrees on information conveyance.
There needs to be a way of helping those that handle and experience low times as a result of
those they are following with their posts. Secondly, Instagram is known by most people to be a
place that most people use and the number keeps on growing. For the new users, who are unable
to garner higher numbers of following and are therefore not minting into the fun that there is on
Instagram, need to be advised by the seniors on what needs to be done by them in order to also
move waves and put up nice posts that attract higher followings, positive comments that make
them happier over time so that they can also enjoy the best that there is and therefore see the
benefits. All the two things have not been addressed and this is a shortfall.
As it stands even at this moment it is very clear that Instagram usage has different positive and
negative influences and these can be deduced from the qualitative analysis as well as the
quantitative analysis. To start off with, the implication that stands out in the general public and that
those of the older generations keep pointing out is the fact that there is time is wasted by most
people while they are using most of the social media platforms and especially when it comes to the
usage of Instagram (. Most of the older people think that every younger person who browses
through the social media wastes too much valuable time that can rather be used to do other
productive things, especially to those that are not making money in at all in all cases.
Looking at the very case that has been mentioned in this case in the long run is the fact that
Instagram usage largely affect the actual way individuals operate and in a social perspective, it can
be both negative as well as positive. Positivity only comes in when there is a gain to a specific user
either economically or in spirits and in emotions. This is because, an individual in high spirits will
always be looking as a glow in the society and if this is because of the fact that Instagram has
aided the way they operate and it is then in the positive limelight. As can be mentioned and had
been mentioned, Instagram as is, is used by other people to seek motivation, especially those that
tend to follow celebrities. The motivation comes in in the sense that, one follows a celerity to see
43
question. The women/ youth ladies that were interviewed had issues that were ranging from the
positive sides to the negative sides. On the negative side there were factors such as ladies
experiencing high social comparison for the fact that they are following those celebrities or
individuals that constantly flaunt how successful they are, what they have materially as well as a
good life they are living on social media. By what they have, if they are female celebrities, then by
show casing a gorgeous body shape and all, there will always be an envy, low self-esteem and
high social comparison from followers to her. All that has been explained and is understandable.
What on the other hand that has not been explained and that should be looked at critically is how
they that follow such bragging individuals should handle themselves after emotional degradation.
The pieces of advice on what they need to do in order to maintain a high state of morale has not
been offered. Or if there is a way that different groups handle low morale as to these kind of posts,
that by any chance has not been shared and therefore no 360 degrees on information conveyance.
There needs to be a way of helping those that handle and experience low times as a result of
those they are following with their posts. Secondly, Instagram is known by most people to be a
place that most people use and the number keeps on growing. For the new users, who are unable
to garner higher numbers of following and are therefore not minting into the fun that there is on
Instagram, need to be advised by the seniors on what needs to be done by them in order to also
move waves and put up nice posts that attract higher followings, positive comments that make
them happier over time so that they can also enjoy the best that there is and therefore see the
benefits. All the two things have not been addressed and this is a shortfall.
As it stands even at this moment it is very clear that Instagram usage has different positive and
negative influences and these can be deduced from the qualitative analysis as well as the
quantitative analysis. To start off with, the implication that stands out in the general public and that
those of the older generations keep pointing out is the fact that there is time is wasted by most
people while they are using most of the social media platforms and especially when it comes to the
usage of Instagram (. Most of the older people think that every younger person who browses
through the social media wastes too much valuable time that can rather be used to do other
productive things, especially to those that are not making money in at all in all cases.
Looking at the very case that has been mentioned in this case in the long run is the fact that
Instagram usage largely affect the actual way individuals operate and in a social perspective, it can
be both negative as well as positive. Positivity only comes in when there is a gain to a specific user
either economically or in spirits and in emotions. This is because, an individual in high spirits will
always be looking as a glow in the society and if this is because of the fact that Instagram has
aided the way they operate and it is then in the positive limelight. As can be mentioned and had
been mentioned, Instagram as is, is used by other people to seek motivation, especially those that
tend to follow celebrities. The motivation comes in in the sense that, one follows a celerity to see
43
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what type of posts they at all in all ways make from time to time on their pages these would entail
videos on fitness, pictures of food being consumed by them in order to help them maintain fit
bodies, people investment and financial results such as car houses and the rest. This then leads
them into working extra hard and therefore in the long run are able to achieve the same.
The other positive usage of Instagram usage would be financial benefits if an individual can
maximize on the number of followers that they can get to have at a time on Instagram, then it is
easier for them to promote a product or a service if they are dealing in anything that can be sold in
terms of the two or either. This therefore would mean more profits if all turns out to be positive. The
other way money can be made is when, they earn from videos and footages posted.
The negative effects that can be experienced by others that also the Instagram platform include
matters such as, envy and depression in the long run. Take for instance where an individual keeps
flaunting their lives all over the place and you on the other side is struggling to make ends meet.
This would definitely without a doubt cause some traumatic envy in the long run. To those that to
some degree are not even able to garner a reasonable number of followers and those that keep
receiving criticism each and every time they post or share on Instagram could find this to be having
a toll on them in the long run. Imagine being excluded and being isolated from time to time, how
would it feel? That would be detrimental right? For this fact, if by any chance one senses that they
do not have the ability of actually commanding a large number of following followed by positive
feedback and responses, then they are supposed to stay away. The social media is full of savages
and the earlier such a person understands this, the better they can lead a more fulfilling life in the
dark, because after all not each and every person must be in the limelight. There are more people
needed to make things running down at the back.
The social media though as a final punch, in as much as some of the people are being roasted on
board, has provided a platform where most of the individuals find friends of each and every tribe
that there is under the surface of the sun. this by far pulls people out of loneliness and therefore
helps save people who would on the other hand be lonely if by any chance the Instagram and the
other social media platform were not at all to be in existence.
44
videos on fitness, pictures of food being consumed by them in order to help them maintain fit
bodies, people investment and financial results such as car houses and the rest. This then leads
them into working extra hard and therefore in the long run are able to achieve the same.
The other positive usage of Instagram usage would be financial benefits if an individual can
maximize on the number of followers that they can get to have at a time on Instagram, then it is
easier for them to promote a product or a service if they are dealing in anything that can be sold in
terms of the two or either. This therefore would mean more profits if all turns out to be positive. The
other way money can be made is when, they earn from videos and footages posted.
The negative effects that can be experienced by others that also the Instagram platform include
matters such as, envy and depression in the long run. Take for instance where an individual keeps
flaunting their lives all over the place and you on the other side is struggling to make ends meet.
This would definitely without a doubt cause some traumatic envy in the long run. To those that to
some degree are not even able to garner a reasonable number of followers and those that keep
receiving criticism each and every time they post or share on Instagram could find this to be having
a toll on them in the long run. Imagine being excluded and being isolated from time to time, how
would it feel? That would be detrimental right? For this fact, if by any chance one senses that they
do not have the ability of actually commanding a large number of following followed by positive
feedback and responses, then they are supposed to stay away. The social media is full of savages
and the earlier such a person understands this, the better they can lead a more fulfilling life in the
dark, because after all not each and every person must be in the limelight. There are more people
needed to make things running down at the back.
The social media though as a final punch, in as much as some of the people are being roasted on
board, has provided a platform where most of the individuals find friends of each and every tribe
that there is under the surface of the sun. this by far pulls people out of loneliness and therefore
helps save people who would on the other hand be lonely if by any chance the Instagram and the
other social media platform were not at all to be in existence.
44
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Appendix A
Tables
● Table 6: Habits Determinant
● Table 7: Platform Characteristics Determinant
45
Tables
● Table 6: Habits Determinant
● Table 7: Platform Characteristics Determinant
45
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● Table 8: Frequency of Usage Determinant
● Table 9: Personality Determinant
46
● Table 9: Personality Determinant
46
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● Table 10: Influences of Followers Consequence
● Table 11: Expectations/Behavior after Posting Consequence
47
● Table 11: Expectations/Behavior after Posting Consequence
47
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Attachments(Quantitative)
Platform Complexity (Own Scale)
I use Instagram because… Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
…it is easy to use o o o o o
…it has a lot of nice functions
(stories, filters, etc.)
o o o o o
User Behaviour (Own Scale)
When I use Instagram I often… Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
…upload pictures o o o o o
…upload videos o o o o o
…upload stories o o o o o
…use filters o o o o o
…seek for more followers o o o o o
…check likes and views o o o o o
Narcissism: Theory and Measurement Robert A. Emmons
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6392/a32eeec011bb6b7ab1bb3e16074c5139b79a.pdf
Narcissism Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I have a natural talent for influencing
others
o o o o o
I like to be the center of attention o o o o o
I am an extraordinary person o o o o o
I like to be complimented o o o o o
Everybody likes to hear my stories o o o o o
Revision of the Self-Monitoring Scale: Richard D. Lennox and Raymond N. Wolfe
http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/revision_of_the_self-
monitoring_scale..pdf
Self-Discrepancy Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I’m not always the person that I
show on Instagram.
o o o o o
I tend to show my ideal self to the
people on Instagram.
o o o o o
Different situations on Instagram can
make me behave differently from
what I really am.
o o o o o
I guess I put on a show to impress or
entertain people on Instagram.
o o o o o
I try to pay attention to the reactions
of others to my behavior on
Instagram in order to avoid being out
o o o o o
48
Platform Complexity (Own Scale)
I use Instagram because… Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
…it is easy to use o o o o o
…it has a lot of nice functions
(stories, filters, etc.)
o o o o o
User Behaviour (Own Scale)
When I use Instagram I often… Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
…upload pictures o o o o o
…upload videos o o o o o
…upload stories o o o o o
…use filters o o o o o
…seek for more followers o o o o o
…check likes and views o o o o o
Narcissism: Theory and Measurement Robert A. Emmons
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6392/a32eeec011bb6b7ab1bb3e16074c5139b79a.pdf
Narcissism Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I have a natural talent for influencing
others
o o o o o
I like to be the center of attention o o o o o
I am an extraordinary person o o o o o
I like to be complimented o o o o o
Everybody likes to hear my stories o o o o o
Revision of the Self-Monitoring Scale: Richard D. Lennox and Raymond N. Wolfe
http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/revision_of_the_self-
monitoring_scale..pdf
Self-Discrepancy Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I’m not always the person that I
show on Instagram.
o o o o o
I tend to show my ideal self to the
people on Instagram.
o o o o o
Different situations on Instagram can
make me behave differently from
what I really am.
o o o o o
I guess I put on a show to impress or
entertain people on Instagram.
o o o o o
I try to pay attention to the reactions
of others to my behavior on
Instagram in order to avoid being out
o o o o o
48
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of place.
Revision of the Self-Monitoring Scale: Richard D. Lennox and Raymond N. Wolfe
http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/revision_of_the_self-
monitoring_scale..pdf
Self-Modification Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
Even if I am not enjoying myself, I
often pretend to be having a good
time on Instagram.
o o o o o
When I feel that the image I'm
portraying isn't working, I can
readily change it on Instagram to
something that does.
o o o o o
When I'm disappointed or
discouraged on Instagram, this will
be evident in my posting behavior.
o o o o o
Individual Differences in Social Comparison: Development of a Scale of Social Comparison
Orientation. Frederick X. Gibbons, Bram P. Buunk
http://persweb.wabash.edu/facstaff/hortonr/articles%20for%20class/gibbons%20and%20buunk.pdf
Social Comparison Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I always pay a lot of attention to how
I do things compared with how
others do things on Instagram
o o o o o
If I want to find out how well I have
done something, I compare what I
have done on Instagram with others
have done
o o o o o
I often compare how I am doing
socially (popularity, social skills)
with other people on Instagram
o o o o o
I never considered my situation in
life relative to that of other people on
Instagram
o o o o o
Validation of A Brief Sense of Community Scale: Confirmation of the Principal Theory of
Sense of Community - cited 463 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jcop.20217
Community Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I feel like a member on Instagram o o o o o
I belong in Instagram community o o o o o
I know about what goes on in
Instagram community
o o o o o
People in Instagram community are
good at influencing each other
o o o o o
I keep in touch with others through
Instagram
o o o o o
49
Revision of the Self-Monitoring Scale: Richard D. Lennox and Raymond N. Wolfe
http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/revision_of_the_self-
monitoring_scale..pdf
Self-Modification Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
Even if I am not enjoying myself, I
often pretend to be having a good
time on Instagram.
o o o o o
When I feel that the image I'm
portraying isn't working, I can
readily change it on Instagram to
something that does.
o o o o o
When I'm disappointed or
discouraged on Instagram, this will
be evident in my posting behavior.
o o o o o
Individual Differences in Social Comparison: Development of a Scale of Social Comparison
Orientation. Frederick X. Gibbons, Bram P. Buunk
http://persweb.wabash.edu/facstaff/hortonr/articles%20for%20class/gibbons%20and%20buunk.pdf
Social Comparison Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I always pay a lot of attention to how
I do things compared with how
others do things on Instagram
o o o o o
If I want to find out how well I have
done something, I compare what I
have done on Instagram with others
have done
o o o o o
I often compare how I am doing
socially (popularity, social skills)
with other people on Instagram
o o o o o
I never considered my situation in
life relative to that of other people on
o o o o o
Validation of A Brief Sense of Community Scale: Confirmation of the Principal Theory of
Sense of Community - cited 463 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jcop.20217
Community Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I feel like a member on Instagram o o o o o
I belong in Instagram community o o o o o
I know about what goes on in
Instagram community
o o o o o
People in Instagram community are
good at influencing each other
o o o o o
I keep in touch with others through
o o o o o
49
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Television Uses and Gratifications: The Interactions of Viewing Patterns and Motivations.
Alan M. Rubin
http://media.library.ku.edu.tr/reserve/resspring17/Mava459_AHestroni/week8/week8.pdf
Escapism
I use Instagram… Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
…so I can forget about school or
other things
o o o o o
…so I can get away from the rest of
the family and others
o o o o o
…so I can get away from what I‘m
doing
o o o o o
Television Uses and Gratifications: The Interactions of Viewing Patterns and Motivations
Alan M. Rubin
http://media.library.ku.edu.tr/reserve/resspring17/Mava459_AHestroni/week8/week8.pdf
Motives
I use Instagram… Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
…because it relaxes me o o o o o
…because it allows me to unwind o o o o o
…because it's a pleasant rest o o o o o
…so I won't have to be alone o o o o o
…when there's no one else to talk to
or be with
o o o o o
…because it makes me feel less
lonely
o o o o o
…when I have nothing better to do o o o o o
…because it passes the time away,
particularly when I'm bored
o o o o o
…because it gives me something to
do to occupy my time
o o o o o
…because it entertains me o o o o o
…because it's enjoyable o o o o o
…because it amuses me o o o o o
Measuring Emotions in the Consumption Experience. Marsha L. Richins
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marsha_Richins/publication/
24098972_Measuring_Emotions_in_the_Consumption_Experience/links/
55084f120cf26ff55f810aed/Measuring-Emotions-in-the-Consumption-Experience.pdf
Emotions Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I feel encouraged when I get positive
comments on Instagram.
o o o o o
I am thrilled to receive more likes
than the previous post
o o o o o
I am surprised when my followers
increase
o o o o o
I feel happy to share my lifestyle on
Instagram
o o o o o
I feel loved when my followers
compliment me
o o o o o
I feel optimistic when I follow my o o o o o
50
Alan M. Rubin
http://media.library.ku.edu.tr/reserve/resspring17/Mava459_AHestroni/week8/week8.pdf
Escapism
I use Instagram… Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
…so I can forget about school or
other things
o o o o o
…so I can get away from the rest of
the family and others
o o o o o
…so I can get away from what I‘m
doing
o o o o o
Television Uses and Gratifications: The Interactions of Viewing Patterns and Motivations
Alan M. Rubin
http://media.library.ku.edu.tr/reserve/resspring17/Mava459_AHestroni/week8/week8.pdf
Motives
I use Instagram… Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
…because it relaxes me o o o o o
…because it allows me to unwind o o o o o
…because it's a pleasant rest o o o o o
…so I won't have to be alone o o o o o
…when there's no one else to talk to
or be with
o o o o o
…because it makes me feel less
lonely
o o o o o
…when I have nothing better to do o o o o o
…because it passes the time away,
particularly when I'm bored
o o o o o
…because it gives me something to
do to occupy my time
o o o o o
…because it entertains me o o o o o
…because it's enjoyable o o o o o
…because it amuses me o o o o o
Measuring Emotions in the Consumption Experience. Marsha L. Richins
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marsha_Richins/publication/
24098972_Measuring_Emotions_in_the_Consumption_Experience/links/
55084f120cf26ff55f810aed/Measuring-Emotions-in-the-Consumption-Experience.pdf
Emotions Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I feel encouraged when I get positive
comments on Instagram.
o o o o o
I am thrilled to receive more likes
than the previous post
o o o o o
I am surprised when my followers
increase
o o o o o
I feel happy to share my lifestyle on
o o o o o
I feel loved when my followers
compliment me
o o o o o
I feel optimistic when I follow my o o o o o
50
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role models on Instagram
Negative comments on my post
Irritate me
o o o o o
I feel nervous after posting a picture
on Instagram
o o o o o
Less number of followers makes me
sad
o o o o o
I envy my friend when he/she posts a
beautiful picture on Instagram
o o o o o
I am embarrassed to post pictures
without filters on Instagram
o o o o o
I get angry when I get criticized for
my Instagram content
o o o o o
I get discontent if I don’t get enough
likes/views on my Instagram content
o o o o o
I get scared when too many people
are watching my Instagram content
o o o o o
Overall Questions (Own Scale)
Overall Questions Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I intend to keep on using Instagram o o o o o
Overall, I’m very satisfied with
Instagram
o o o o o
I would recommend using Instagram
to my friends
o o o o o
I would like to explore new
platforms in the future
o o o o o
51
Negative comments on my post
Irritate me
o o o o o
I feel nervous after posting a picture
on Instagram
o o o o o
Less number of followers makes me
sad
o o o o o
I envy my friend when he/she posts a
beautiful picture on Instagram
o o o o o
I am embarrassed to post pictures
without filters on Instagram
o o o o o
I get angry when I get criticized for
my Instagram content
o o o o o
I get discontent if I don’t get enough
likes/views on my Instagram content
o o o o o
I get scared when too many people
are watching my Instagram content
o o o o o
Overall Questions (Own Scale)
Overall Questions Very unlikely Rather unlikely Undecided Rather likelyVery likely
I intend to keep on using Instagram o o o o o
Overall, I’m very satisfied with
o o o o o
I would recommend using Instagram
to my friends
o o o o o
I would like to explore new
platforms in the future
o o o o o
51
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56
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