The Concreteness Effect on Short-Term Memory: A Meta-Analytic Review

The provided content covers various studies and research on the topic of memory, including theories of memory, encoding strategies, and the effects of different factors such as semantic orientation, item material, and virtual reality environments. The studies investigate aspects of human memory, such as recall performance, false memory, and psychological well-being in aging. The topics include the Method of Loci, spatial mnemonic encoding, and the role of the cerebellum in encoding internal models.

Title
Practical effectiveness of Method of Loci and
Standard Rehearsal: A comparative study of
the semantic processing techniques

Abstract:
The semantic processing undoubtedly makes the method of memorising through encoding
and recall much easier but the degree of ease offered by various techniques are different. The
understanding of the different conditions and the efficiency of the different techniques are a
necessary part of the practical implementation of the techniques in a different situation that
makes the comparative analysis of the efficiency of the methods important. This research
conducts an analysis of the same for the two techniques of semantic processing that are a
method of loci and standard rehearsal. In a controlled environment, the effectiveness of the
two techniques is tested in a comparative practical experiment of two groups of participants
under same conditions in case of a list of 20 words. The prediction of the groups using the
process of the method of loci would be performing better than the other group using standard
rehearsal was proven in the research.

Title
Practical effectiveness of Method of Loci and Standard Rehearsal: A comparative study of
the semantic processing techniques
Introduction
The human memory or recall is a most complex process, which is divided into short-term and
long-term memory. The recall is the way the information committed to memory is drawn
forth which forms the basis of the human memory. The process of committing information to
memory is called encoding, which according to Gross et al (2011) has great significance in
facilitating recall of specific information and thus affects the cognitive ability of an individual
greatly. However, the different types of encoding like the visual encoding, phonological
encoding and semantic encoding all have their specific advantages. These processes are
therefore appropriate for different types of information like, colours, sounds and words,
which form the basic categories of information stored in the brain. In the opinion of Moberget
et al., (2014), the semantic encoding is vastly superior in cases of long-term memory and
recall and the process of semantic encoding that initiated the process of memorizing specific
information can significantly impact the recall process efficiency and accuracy. The different
types of semantic encoding like the method of Loci (MoL), standard rehearsal and processing
of imagery all have a different level of impact on the process of encoding and thus affect the
recall differently (Bass & Oswald, 2014; Hudon, Villeneuve & Belleville, 2011).
The importance of the understanding of the interrelation between the recall performance of
specific memory and its impact on cognitive learning or correct recall of specific information
is the main purpose of the study. This study focuses on two specific semantic encoding

processes that are Method of Loci and standard rehearsal in a practical setting and their
comparative analysis in a practical setting.
In the opinion of Kuo, (2017), the semantic encoding process can be likened with using the
arrangement of information in the memory in an interrelated pattern where the key
information is stored at a specific locus and one information that is located at specific
location leads to recall of all the related information without conscious effort. This process is
specifically significant for memory impairment were the easier to recall information can be
used to find information that is more complex. Fellner et al., (2016) explored the relation of
brain functions during encoding and recall for mnemonic techniques of encoding. The
findings clearly indicated that the method of loci being the most effective technique in case of
committing information to long-term memory. On the other hand, Campoy et al., (2015),
researched the standard rehearsal technique for semantic encoding and concluded its
superiority in case of short-term memory. This understanding of the different types of
encoding process specifically in the semantic encoding of information and the specific
advantages and disadvantages of the different encoding techniques in a practical setting under
different conditions. According to the above research, the different methods or techniques all
have their importance in the encoding and recall based on the type of information frequency
of recall and other factors that play a role in the overall management of the information and
the encoding process.
According to Kroneisen & Makerud, (2017) the information type significantly affect the
effectiveness of the encoding technique and the method of loci specifically is more efficient
at recalling of verbal information than the written information. Similarly, the standard
rehearsal is much more efficient at encoding verbal or auditory information to long-term
memory through their effectiveness in case of other visual memory is moderate at best. Bar &
DeSouza, (2016) successfully related the auditory information stored through rehearsal with

physical movement in case of dancers in their study. This makes the information type being
encoded the most important factor in recall and encoding. The study of the different types of
rehearsal, therefore, suggested that the overall understanding of encoding processes,
therefore, is mainly two types where continuous repetition is used to commit series of
information to memory and in case of the elaborative the already committed information is
used to commit new information in sequence that modifies the memory.
The practical implication of the research is therefore significant in case of the different
diseases that are both chronic and geriatric and their impact on the working memory of an
affected individual (Goedeken et al., 2017). The research studies the impact of the specific
diseases the ones like Parkinson and others that affect the memory or the nervous system
similarly and uses the different encoding technique training to facilitate easier recall of
information. This problem renders the patents often dependent on others so the practical
implication of the different encoding process and their effectiveness has huge significance in
the field of medical research. Tat et al., (2016) came to the same conclusion in case of the
Alzheimer’s and mild cognitive impairment where the encoding technique significantly
improved the memory of individuals with a significant reduction in inaccurate information in
the recall. Thus, the practical side of the study is not limited to the understanding of the
cognitive processes in the human brain and significantly affects the function of an individual
in future. Moreover, this is more important because of the significance of long-term memory
in day-to-day function and social interactive capacity of an individual (Donahue et al., 2015).
The memory encoding technique, therefore, is a factor that affects the functionality,
efficiency, and working memory that spans not only the cognitive aspect of the individual but
also the control of memory that affects their effectiveness in both personal or professional
setting. (Borella et al., 2017; Oberauer & Lewandowsky, 2016; Conway, Gathercole &
Cornoldi, 2014). The strategic use of the techniques to increase the cognitive capability of an

individual, therefore, can be related to the overall success of daily functions in the physical
and intellectual setting. According to Toffalini et al., (2016) this is an important factor in
psychological wellbeing the ageing adults which makes the importance of the different
techniques and their efficiency even more important by closely relating this to geriatric
psychological diseases. Therefore, the topic spans a huge area of research and there is
numerous research conducted in the areas of the efficiency of the different memory
techniques that affect the humans differently.
The advantages of the method of loci in recalling specific information from memory have
been the topic of many research and Legge et al., (2012) used the virtual reality to test eh
effectiveness of MoL as a technique of encoding information. In addition, a further analysis
of the same factor by Huttner, & Susanne, (2017) further reinforced the findings of the
research that established the effectiveness of the MoL as an encoding technique in a setting
that is as close to reality as could be. Therefore, the factor of the method of loci being an
effective technique is an established fact and its role in the different cases where the different
memory related issues have been solved by using the MoL to increase efficiency of the
encoding and future recall of information in support of the same (Borella et al., 2017;
Oberauer & Lewandowsky, 2016). The comparative efficiency of the different encoding
techniques also have been explored and the different researchers used different context to
analyze the efficiency and accuracy of the different encoding techniques that benefit an
individual to different degrees. According to Ahour & Berenji (2015), the method of loci is
efficient due to its much more systematic organization than rehearsal that does not use the
understanding of information. However, the richness of detail in survival memory processing
is much more important in developing and instinctive action that the method of loci that
needs to be initiated by the user (Kroneisen & Makerud, 2017). From this analysis, the
different encoding techniques that are based on the semantic processing of memory can be

understood in their effectiveness in a different context and validated the previously discussed
point of information type and recall frequency being an effective indicator of the different
strengths and weaknesses of the techniques in a different setting.
Therefore, the factors as understood, if applied in a general situation in case of encoding and
recalling a series of words, the efficiency of the MoL would be higher than the standard
rehearsal technique. The research has great potential in developing an understanding of the
memory and using techniques to help the individuals affected by different issues affecting
their memory as discussed. van den Berg, Awh & Ma, (2014) supports this notion and the
validity and importance of the topic while researchers like Gross et al., (2012) focus on the
effectiveness of their practical use in different situations.
Based on the different factors discussed above, the specific research took two specific groups
of a total 220 students from the psychology department of the Coventry University (UK) and
formed group A (method of loci) and group B (standard rehearsal). Both of the groups were
without any prior training and they were given a list of words to memorize using the two
encoding techniques. They were later tested for their efficiency and accuracy of recalling the
specific information in a standardized test. The results of the test s were used to compare the
relative efficiency and accuracy of the recall using the two different techniques.

Aim and Hypothesis:
As sophisticated as memory is and as well as it serves us it is far from perfect, therefore, the
way that we encode information for retrieval and incorporate memory techniques is one way
in which we may be able to improve memory. The current research aimed to test as to
whether using the method of loci memorising technique enables for a better level of recall
compared to a standardised rehearsal of information memorising technique. An experimental
design was used to as to which technique was the most beneficial in the correct recall of a
series of words. Based on previous research literature (Kroneisen & Makerud 2017), it was
hypothesised that participants using the method of loci memorising strategy would recall
significantly more correct words than participants using a simple rehearsal strategy.

Methods
Design
A between-group experimental design was incorporated to study the effect of memory
technique (method of loci vs. standard rehearsal) on the ability to correctly recall words.
Participants were randomly allocated to either Condition A (method of loci) or Condition B
(standard rehearsal), where they were provided with instructions as to how they should
memorise a list of words. The study controlled for noise by requesting silence in the room
where memorisation and testing took part, additionally a scripted procedure ensured that data
collection was consistent for all researchers across the study.
Participants
Two hundred and twenty psychology students from Coventry University (UK) were recruited to
participate in the study using opportunity sampling. Students participated in exchange for course
credits. There were 176 females and 80 males (4 participants wished to withhold their gender) with a
mean age of 25.86 years (SD= 10.41) ranging from 18 to 56 years old. Ethical approval for this study
was granted by Faculty of Health Sciences at Coventry University.

Materials
Each condition had slightly different instructions in terms of the way that they should
memorise a list of 20 words given to them. Condition A (see Appendix C) requested that
participants use a method of loci technique
e.g. “The Method of Loci is a mental walk. As you imagine a journey from one
location to another you place any items you want to remember at specific
locations. The pairing of the items with a location should mean that when you
want to remember the items you simply retrace your mental steps.”.
Participants were also informed as to how they should recall the words on the list by retracing
their steps on the mental walk. In contrast Condition B (standard rehearsal; see Appendix D)
participants were given the instructions;
“I will shortly present you with the list of words, when I do just try to rehearse
and memorise as many as you can, do not try to use any specific strategies to
improve your memory. When I do give you the word list, please do not try to
write any of the words down”.
A list of 20 words was generated through the Paivio et al. Word list Generator through the
website http://www.datavis.ca/online/paivio/ which allows users to generate a list of words
with as many words as they wish, the generated list of 20 words controlled for variables of
syllables (2-4), number of letters (3-10), Kucera-Francis word frequency (1-100), imagery
rating (5-7), concreteness (5-7) and meaningfulness (5-7).

Procedure
Participants attended a PC suite where they were welcomed and met by the researcher who provided
them with participant information (Appendix A) as well as a consent form (Appendix B). Participants
willing to participate were asked if they were clear on the test they were to undertake, if unsure they
were provided with further instructions until happy to continue. Participants were sat down and given
time to make themselves comfortable before being provided with instructions as to how they should
memorise a list of 20 words that was about to be presented to them (Condition A or Condition B). All
participants were given 2 minutes to memorise as many of the words as possible. Researchers timed
the participant for 2 minutes and once time had passed the list of words was removed. Participants
were then presented with a recall sheet and requested to try their best to recall as many words as
possible in 4 minutes. Once the 4 minutes had passed the recall sheet was removed and participants
were thanked for their time and informed that they were free to go.

Results
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the correct recall scores for
participants in either the Method of Loci or standard rehearsal memory technique groups. All
assumptions for conducting an independent t-test were met. There was a significant
difference in mean scores for participants in the Method of Loci group (M = 16.04, SD=
3.39) and the standard rehearsal group (M= 14.60, SD= 3.26; t (218)= 3.22, p<.001).

Discussion
Discussion
The results of the study indicated a higher number of words accurately recalled by the group
using the method of loci which was the hypothesis for this research. This finding was in line
with the previous research in the comparative strengths and the weakness of the different
semantic processing techniques in the practical setting. Although the environment was
controlled, the techniques used for the research are not reliant on the surroundings like
survival process (Kroneisen & Makerud, 2017) so the results validity in a setting, as
discussed in the literature review, would be appropriate in a setting for possible used in the
medical and academic setting.
While the clear instructions used in the trial and the noise isolation that affected the stimulus
affecting the distraction of the individuals significantly it is true for both groups of
participants so the findings cannot be disputed. In addition, this research supports the findings
of previous research findings on this topic so the accuracy of the findings cannot be
questioned in terms of specification or process bias. However, as the participants had no
experience of using either method of semantic processing this research is unique as previous
findings indicated that the without training, the rehearsal method yield better results in
retrieval of information. While this might be true in some setting as the practical use of the
training would be essential for different memory related issues the overall greater
effectiveness of the MoL is established firmly in the research.
Therefore, for all practical purposes and situational implications, the research was a success
but the limitations of the research make this research limited in its scope as no new factors
were included in the conditions of the recall like frequency or time which makes this research

quite similar to the previous studies in the topic. Thus, while the findings are clear the
research by no means is a breakthrough in understanding semantic processing better. Like
Huttner, & Susanne, (2017) the research did not introduce any new element in the research
process and thus the comparison is not in any way different from prior explorations in other
areas from the samples.
In conclusion, it can be said that the method of loci, under specific circumstances (i.e. no
prior training, no cognitive impairment etc. ) leads to higher accuracy and efficiency in the
recall of words than the standard rehearsal process. Thus, the rehearsal method that does not
depend on the cognitive ability of an individual is deficient in its application in impaired
people and the procedures of the use of MoL in the setting is severely limited because of its
dependency of the cognitive ability of an individual.

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