Health Psychology and Social Factors

This assignment delves into the field of health psychology, examining how social factors influence individual health and well-being. It requires an analysis of various psychological theories related to health, such as social comparison theory, stress coping models, and the impact of perceived social isolation. Students must also evaluate research studies and demonstrate an understanding of the complex interplay between social relationships, mental health, and overall health outcomes.

Psychology for Health and
Social Care

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
TASK 1............................................................................................................................................1
a) Comparison of psychological theories of lifespan development.............................................1
b) Relation of psychological theories and concepts to specific life stages..................................2
TASK 2............................................................................................................................................3
a) Social and biological factors influencing human behaviour...................................................3
b) Analysis of importance of social roles....................................................................................5
TASK 3............................................................................................................................................6
c) Analysis of application of psychological theories...................................................................6
d) (AC 3.2) Analysis of relationship between psychological theories and behaviour
disturbance...................................................................................................................................7
b) ( AC 3.3) Analysis of ways in which psychological theory helps in understanding mental
health disorders............................................................................................................................8
c) (AC 3.4) Evaluation of application of psychological principles to affecting behaviour
change..........................................................................................................................................9
a) (AC 3.5) Psychological theories and understanding of relationships......................................9
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................10
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................11

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Psychoanalytic theory......................................................................................................8

INTRODUCTION
Psychology assumes an important place in health and social care owing to its contribution
in promotion of healthy behaviour. Through application of various theories and principles,
psychology assists in improving the quality of life of people by preventing diseases (Smith,
2015). There are various psychological factors associated with physical illness which are
important to be considered. Psychology, in the context of health and social care deals with
identifying and analysing these factors so as to promote health of individuals. The present report
provides comparison of various theories of lifespan development. Further, an analysis of various
social and biological determinants of human behaviour has been undertaken. Lastly, application
of psychological theories has been undertaken.
TASK 1
a) Comparison of psychological theories of lifespan development
Stage versus open ended theories of lifespan development
According to Stage theory of Lifespan development, all the individuals go through the
same stages of maturity and develop in the same manner commencing from birth to death. Also,
the assumption of this theory is that the choices made by each person shape his or her future
(Buunk, Gibbons and Buunk, 2013). In this process, an important role is played by the human
behaviour. Hence, as per the stage theories, every individual passes through the same stages of
development, though the duration for which an individual remains in a particular stage may
differ from person to person.
For example, Erikson’s stages of development can be considered as an example of stage
theory whereby 8 stages of psychosocial development have been proposed. These stages are as
follows:
 Infant – 18 months: trust vs. Mistrust
 18 Months – 3 Years: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
 3-5 years: Initiative vs. guilt
 5 – 13 years: industry vs. Inferiority
 13 – 21 years: Identity vs. Role Confusion
 21- 39 years: Intimacy vs. Isolation
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 40 – 65 years: Generativity vs. Stagnation
 65 and older: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
According to Erikson’s theory, certain crisis is encountered by every individual at each stage
and this contributes towards his psychosocial growth with respect to the eight proposed stages.
The crises are of psychosocial nature. This is because they are concerned with the psychological
needs of the individual (Hasson, 2010). As per this theory, if each stage is successfully
completed, it can lead to the development of a healthy personality. Further, the person is able to
acquire basic virtues.
In contrast to the stage theories, open ended theories are based on the assumption that there is
difference between every individual on the basis of inheritance and hence, different behaviours
are observed with different persons. Moreover, the behaviour of an individual is also shaped by
cultural, psychological and physiological factors (Brett and et.al., 2014).
Static versus dynamic theories
According to the static theories, there is only one direction in which the human
development takes place. This assumes that whether an individual prefers or not, he will have to
move to the next stage and will have to go through every stage of development. Successful
completion of the previous stage is determined by the attitude of the individual (Maslach and
Jackson, 2013). Hence, according to this theory, the nature of each stage of development is
linear.
In contrast to this, dynamic theory of lifespan development assumes that there are various
stages at which a person can begin or end his lifespan. The different stages provide different
experiences which teach a person to learn and obtain knowledge (Umberson and Karas Montez,
2010). Every individual takes a different path towards development which depends upon the
skills possessed by him or her. For example, the views of an educated person would be entirely
different from those who are less educated.
b) Relation of psychological theories and concepts to specific life stages
The various psychological theories are related to specific life stages in the following manner:
 Infancy: This stage is the duration from birth up to one and a half years. Erikson’s theory
is related to infancy as it is also the first stage of the theory. According to Erikson, during
infancy, an individual faces the crisis of trust vs. mistrust. The basic virtue that one gains
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from this stage is that of hope (Braveman, Egerter and Williams, 2011). Freud’s theory is
related to this stage as he described it as the oral stage where a person’s primary source of
pleasure is through mouth.
 Early Childhood: The stage from 1 and a half to 3 years is known as early childhood.
Erikson’s theory is associated with this stage as during this, an individual goes through
the crisis of autonomy vs. shame which inculcates the basis virtue of ‘will’ (Contrada and
Baum, 2011). Freud theory is related to the early childhood stage as he called this stage
as anal stage of development.
 Late childhood: According to Erikson’s this stage faces the psychological crisis of
initiative vs. guilt as well as industry vs. inferiority. This stage leads to the development
of the basic virtues of purpose and competency. Hence, the late childhood stage is also
associated with the Erikson’s theory of psychological development (Weare, 2010). As
compared to this, Freud theory calls it as the phallic stage.
 Adulthood: This stage of life is associated with the 6th and the 7th stages of Erikson’s
theory. According to the theory, during these stages, an individual is faced with the crisis
of intimacy vs. isolation and generativity vs. stagnation (Aspinwall and Tedeschi, 2010).
These stages lead to the inculcation of the basic virtues of love and care. Freud’s theory is
related to this stage as according to him, the genital stage lasts throughout adulthood.
 Late adulthood: Erikson’s theory is related to the late adulthood stage as its 8th stage,
Maturity, describes the life stage of 65 years and above. Successful completion of this
stage leads to the virtue of wisdom with the help of which a person is enabled to reflect
back of his life with a sense of completeness (Dures and et.al., 2011).
It is together to discourse upon some psychological theories of development and their
relationship with that to the above specific life stages. Below are the theories and their
detailed elucidation- Behavioural theory- It is a learning theory in whose accordance, all sort of behaviours is
developed through conditioning. It thereby plays a significant role in the therapeutic
settings to assist the clients in learning newer set of skills and activities. Its use is
therefore assistive in the early stages of childhood.
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 Cognitive theory- This in turn depicts a chief focus on the internal states of an individual
involving motivation, decision making, attention, problem solving and thinking, etc. This
theory is thereby referred to be useful in both adulthood and late adulthood period of an
individual. Psychodynamic theory- This theory is useful in shaping the personality of an indigoes
opn the basis of his or her childhood experiences and should be applied in a specific life
stage of late childhood or adulthood. Humanistic theory- With a growing popularity of this theory in 1950’s, this theory
concentrated on any irregular behaviour of an individual influenced by any sort of
psychological disorder. This theory is thereby known to focus upon the basic goodness of
individuals and is useful in the specific life stage of infancy so as to depict any such
abnormalities of an infant.
TASK 2
a) Social and biological factors influencing human behaviour
Human behaviour is influenced by a number of factors which may be social and
biological in nature. These have been explained below:
Social factors
The following social factors influence human behaviour:
 Family: This influences the behaviour of a person through the relationships and feelings
that a person shares with other family members. Family acts as the first level of support
for a person and is a part and participle in the good and bad situations that an individual
goes through. Therefore, the relationships of an individual with his family members
influence his behaviour. Strong relationships gives a sense of belonging and love to the
person making his behaviour positively inclined (Cacioppo and Cacioppo, 2014). In
contrast to this, weak family structure and conflicts between the family members may
make a person’s behaviour negative towards several aspects of life.
 Education: The level of education of a person significantly influences his behaviour.
High level of education increases the knowledge of a person and makes him capable of
understanding self as well as other people’s perspectives and perceptions. In contrast to
this, lack of education may make a person conservative towards adopting of novel
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methods and trends (Fiske, Gilbert and Lindzey, 2010). In the context of health and social
care, low level of education may restrict a person from adopting a careful behaviour
towards his health.
 Culture: It impacts the behaviour of a person in the form of cultural norms and practices.
Every culture has a set of values and beliefs which are deep rooted and followed by the
individuals. The set of norms and beliefs of a particular culture influences the behaviour
of an individual as the person behaves in a way that is considered to be acceptable and
appreciable in his or her culture (Lakey and Orehek, 2011). He avoids behaving in that
manner which the culture considers to be unacceptable and offensive. Hence, some
people may not be cooperative enough in disclosing their illness to the healthcare
professionals if their culture does not support it.
 Discrimination: An individual’s behaviour is influenced by discrimination. If an
individual experiences discrimination, it affects his behaviour by making him feel inferior
and unacceptable. The individual may thus behaviour in an annoyed way and may be less
cooperative towards the healthcare professionals. He may also lose trust on the healthcare
staff and may even discontinue the treatment (Fitzsimmons-Craft, 2011). Therefore, it
may lead to a demotivated behaviour.
 Social exclusion: This is a social factor that makes a person lose hope and engagement
with his community and thus influences his behaviour in a negative manner. A person
who experiences social exclusion develops a behaviour that is characterized by lack of
trust, compassion and coordination with others (Khan and et.al., 2011). He also becomes
pessimistic towards life and the behaviour shows lack of motivation and hopefulness. Peer group pressure- Peer pressure is also stated as peer socialization and is a situation
that creates from any existing social relationships formed on the basis of social norms. It
mostly impacts upon the individuals at their adolescent phase of life where the
adolescents directly influence their friends to imitate their behaviour. This in turn creates
a pressurised state of mind in such teenage individuals and they easily get into wrongful
practices such as smoking and drinking, etc.
 Mass media and technology- It is referred to be yet another deterrent aspect that largely
impacts upon the individuals that not only comprises young people but together impact
upon the adulthood individuals. This is for instance on referring to such commercials that
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in turn creates an unnecessary urge in people to try out new things, even if they are not in
requirement of doing so.
Biological factors
The following biological factors influence the behaviour of a person:
 Genetics: An individual’s behaviour is influenced by the genes that he inherits from his
father and mother, hence, the individual will behave according to the genetic traits that
the parents have passed on to him.
 Neuro- degenerative disorders: This is a biological factor that influences the behaviour
of a person. If an individual suffers from Parkinson’s disease, he suffers from depressed
mood and thus depicts a dull behaviour. His behaviour may also be influenced due to the
delusions or paranoia that he may suffer due to Parkinson’s disease. Similarly, a person
suffering from Alzheimer’s disease may exhibit irritable behaviour and would show lack
of interest towards family and friends (Buunk, Gibbons and Buunk, 2013). As the
individual suffering from this disease would suffer from mood swings and loss of
motivation, he may exhibit an aggressive and self-harming behaviour as well.
 Instinct- It basically refers to an innate pattern of human behaviour that are generally
unlearned and are physically determined behavioural pattern with a common presence in
all living beings. It is automatic and creates an irresistible desire in the individual and can
occur at any point of time.
 Reflex- This is together similar to innate behaviours that also exists as an unlearned
incident and determined biologically in a way where an individual is known to sense an
involuntary response towards some sort of physical stimuli. Knee jerks is a common
example of reflex.
 Drivers- This together indicates some common impulse in living beings in terms of
satisfying some common needs like sleeping, consumption of food and water, etc.
b) Analysis of importance of social roles
Social roles are extremely important during provision of comprehensive approach to patient care.
Development of social roles
Development of social roles comprises of formation of set of connected behaviours,
beliefs, rights and obligations as are conceptualized by people in a particular situation. In the
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context of health and social care, this is important during provision of comprehensive care as it
binds the healthcare staff to follow the established set of standards, norms and behaviours which
promote quality of care being delivered to the patient (Hasson, 2010). It is these roles that help
the nurses, carers, healthcare professionals and other staff to follow the quality standards. These
also compel them to abide by the shared beliefs regarding patient care and follow the norms
appropriately without fail.
Concept of conformity
Conformity is regarded as a social influence that is concerned with changing a particular
behaviour so as to become a part of a group. In other words, it is the tendency of an individual to
think and act similar to other members of the group. This is considerably important in health and
social care. Concept of conformity will encourage the healthcare professionals to conform to
what is expected of them on the basis of their social roles. Hence, it would make them work in
coordination towards treating person and providing care to him (Brett and et.al., 2014).
Development of self-concept
According to the theory proposed by Mead and Cooley, it is the social interactions that
lead to the emergence of self. An individual develops the self-concept by activities such as
interaction with others and observing them. The development of self-concept is important while
providing comprehensive care to a person because it allows individuals to take on different roles
and express the expectations of others. According to the self-concept developed by Mead, the
self has two sides, namely, ‘me’ and ‘I’. ‘Me’ is regarded as the socialized aspect of an
individual and is concerned with learned behaviours and attitudes as well as expectations of other
people (Maslach and Jackson, 2013). The ‘I’ is regarded as the present and the future phase of
self. Self-concept is important while providing comprehensive care to the patient because it leads
to better understanding of behavioural and personality development.
Social roles-
These are the roles that are generally played by the individuals who are taking part in a
social group(s). It thereby tends to varies as per the expectations to be fulfilled while working
together and thence an individual is required to adopt different type of roles to fit into the same.
This concludes that all social roles have an expected behaviour that is required to be fulfilled by
the individuals and are known as norms.
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Social facilitation-
Also termed as audience effect, it depicts people tendency to perform differently when
working with others or in their presence in comparison to the situation when they are working
alone. It is based on the fact where other’s presence duly energizes the individual and they
perform together in much better manner.
Social loafing-
It is also stated to be a social psychology where the presence of one person tends to
provides a sense of relaxation to other with a special context of working in groups and thus
putting less efforts to attain the undertaken goals.
Theoretical viewpoints-
This demonstrates some vital set of expectations in an individual about realism that in
turn depicts the significance of an act, a character to be portrayed, language to be used along
with an affirmative state of mind and a represented personality.
TASK 3
c) (AC 3.1) Analysis of application of psychological theories
Psychological theories can be applied to the individuals who experience elevated stress
related to work, illness or chronic illness. Psychological stress may be caused due to a number of
reasons. It may work related where an individual may be stressed due to the load and the
pressure he bears in his occupation. Further psychological stress may be cause due to chronic
illness, bereavement and loss of a loved one. Psychological theories can be used in the context of
people who are experiencing elevated stress (Braveman, Egerter and Williams, 2011). For
example, cognitive theory given by Piaget describes the thought processes of a person. Further,
this theory helps in determining the way in which the thought processes of an individual
influence his understanding as well as his interactions with the world. Hence, this theory can be
used in the context of health and social care as well. With the help of cognitive theory,
knowledge can be gained about the ways in which an individual must be perceiving stress.
Following this, the reasons behind elevated stress can be identified and analysed.
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With the help of psychological theories, causes of elevated stress related to work and
chronic illness can be identified. Psychoanalytic theory given by Sigmund Freud is based on the
assumption that people can be cured by making them aware about their unconscious motivations.
and thoughts. This is based on curing people by gaining insights. This theory can be used for
releasing the repressed emotions as well as experiences of individual who is experiencing stress
(Contrada and Baum, 2011).
Behavioural theories of psychology assume that an individual acquires a particular
behaviour through conditioning. Hence, by applying this theory, people who are feeling stressed
can adopt new behaviours and condition themselves (Aspinwall and Tedeschi, 2010). Similarly,
with the use of developmental theories, it can be analysed that by modifying the thought
processes, individuals experiencing elevated stress can be treated.
d) (AC 3.2) Analysis of relationship between psychological theories and behaviour disturbance
Psychological theories are related to behaviour disturbances such as autism spectrum
disorders, attention deficit disorders etc. These theories improve the understanding associated
with human behaviour as well as thought processes. Autism spectrum disorders are characterized
by deficits in social behaviour and communication. These also show restrictive and repetitive
behaviours by individuals. Individuals suffering with autism suffer from impairment in one area
of cognitive functioning (Dures and et.al., 2011). According to the psychoanalytic theory of
Freud, autism is viewed as a disorder in which there occurs alteration on the development of
sense of self and sense of others. The theory explains autism as dysfunctional emergence of self.
Further, the theory is related to autism spectrum disorders as according to it, the disorder is
regarded as a regression to an earlier stage of development. Similarly, psychoanalytic theory by
Freud is also elated to attention deficit disorder as it focuses on underlying disturbance in
functioning of ego.
Maslow’s psychological theory is related to behaviour disorders like attention deficit
disorder (ADHD). ADHD is characterized by the difficulty in sticking to plans, rules and
regulations. It is also demonstrated by a difficulty in inhibiting impulses to act. The relationship
between Erikson’s theory and behavioural disorder is that the theory provides basis for the
rasions behind social difficulties leading to identity confusion (Cacioppo and Cacioppo, 2014).
The theory comprises of eight stages which depict a developmental crisis at each stage.
Moreover, it emphasizes on emergence of self and a search for the identity. Moreover, according
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to Erikson, during the fifth stage, an important role is played by the peer relationships in
development of certain social skills that form a part of the identity of a person. This can be
related to autism as autistic adolescents face difficulty during development of social
relationships. Hence, the Erikson’s theory guides through the reasons behind behavioural
disorders like autism.
This is to discourse upon the biological model where it is reflected as a theory of
abnormality and thus states about the presence of any psychological disorder in humans which
comes from some sort of biological issues. It is for instance to demonstrate the existence of
depression that could be due to some sort of chemical imbalance in one’s brain.
There together exists many such psychological theories that are applicable in addictive
behaviour and in turn persuades an individual to adopt some unacceptable practices of gambling
and consumption of alcohol, etc. Psychopathological model is one such model of addiction that
also involves some recovery implications. It is in accordance to this theory, there are various
mental disorders that in turn becomes a cause of addiction where both these things occurs
together and this process is known as co- morbidity.
b) ( AC 3.3) Analysis of ways in which psychological theory helps in understanding mental
health disorders
Psychological theories are assistive in understanding mental health disorders such as
depression, schizophrenia. Psychoanalytic theory by Freud proposes that psychological problems
are deep rooted in unconscious mind. The hidden disturbances result into manifested symptoms.
Hence, this theory is related to mental health disorders as it explains that mental problems may
be cause due to the deep rooted problems in the unconscious mind (Fiske, Gilbert and Lindzey,
2010). It is due to this reason that the psychoanalytic theory proposes that psychological
problems can be treated by understanding the unconscious mind. As per this theory, the psyche is
divided into Id, Ego and Super- ego. ‘Id’ represents repository of the basic instincts ‘Ego’ is
concerned with the reality principle and is slowly developed between ‘id’ and reality of the
external world. The super- ego is considered to be that part of ego which is characterized by the
development of critical and judgemental faculties. According to this theory, excessively severe
super-ego leads to depression.
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Figure 1: Psychoanalytic theory
(Source: Psychodynamic Perspectives on Personality, 2017)
Cognitive theory is focused upon people’s beliefs. It can be related to mental disorders as
this theory assumes that systematic negative bias in thinking processes results into disturbed
behaviour. This includes negative thoughts about self and the world. Cognitive abnormality is
the reason behind emotional as well as behavioural symptoms. In contrast to this, Maslow’s
theory believes that humans are always on the path of fulfilling certain needs (Lakey and Orehek,
2011). Of these, self-actualization is the most important need that a human wants to fulfil. If
there is any obstruction in the fulfilment of self-actualization need, then it may lead to mental
disorders like neurosis, psychosis etc. There exist various psychological theories that help
individuals to determine any sort of cultural or mental disorders with a specific context of
cognitive theories. It directly assists in identifying any such mental disorder in humans by
arbitrating their mental potency in terms of their decision making, problem solving and thinking
abilities. Likewise, social psychology theories are together focussed on understanding the social
behaviour of individuals by centering upon a particular social phenomena that together involves
group behaviour and social influence, etc.
c) (AC 3.4) Evaluation of application of psychological principles to affecting behaviour change
Psychological principles can be applied to affecting behaviour change through health
promotion and care strategies. Behaviour change can be brought about by application of these
theories which would further assist in health promotion. By using social cognitive theory,
efficacy beliefs can be targeted as one of the most important determinants of regulating
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motivation and behaviour of an individual. Moreover, with the help of this theory, one is capable
of identifying different types of behaviours that restrict an individual from adopting healthy
behaviours. By removing those barriers, behaviour change can be brought about in people.
Similarly, Avoidance therapy such as cognitive dissonance can also be applied with the help of
psychological principles (Fitzsimmons-Craft, 2011). Avoidance is considered to be a
maladaptive coping mechanism which is characterized by the tendency of an individual to avoid
dealing with a stressor.
According to learning theories, an individual learns complex behaviour gradually by
modifying simpler behaviours. These theories are based on imitation and reinforcement and
hence can be used for bringing behaviour change in people. People adopt certain behaviours by
duplication of what they observe in others (Khan and et.al., 2011). Health promoting
behaviours, thus, can be inculcated in a person.
a) (AC 3.5) Psychological theories and understanding of relationships
Psychological theories help in understanding the relationships between service users and
care workers. These theories help in analysing the perception of people and the way they
understand others. For example, self-perception theory assumes that a person observes himself in
the same manner as he observes others. It is on the basis of this that he concludes about his likes
and dislikes. People develop attitudes by observing their own behaviour (Smith, 2015). This can
be used for understanding the reason behind patients developing cooperative relationships with
their carers.
Social exchange theory, on the other hand, assumes that humans develop relationships on
the basis of cost benefit analysis and these relationships are based on their rational choice. On the
basis of this, the relationships between patients/ family members and their carers can be
understood. If the costs begin to outweigh the benefits of the service users, the family members
may opt for another carer. Attachment theory proposed by Bowlby is fruitful in understanding
the needs of a service user with respect to his relationship with the care worker (Hasson, 2010).
According to this theory, the need for attachment is a fundamental need. When the adults are ill
or distressed, the need for attachment is activated. On the basis of this theory, it can be analysed
that the patients who develop string relationship with their care workers do so because their need
for attachment is activated due to the illness for which they are being treated.
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CONCLUSION
From the report, it can be concluded that psychological factors are important to be
considered as these play an important role in influencing human behaviour. Psychological
theories and concepts are related to the specific life stages namely infancy, childhood and
adulthood. A number of social and biological factors influence human behaviour. Social factors
include education, family, culture, social exclusion and discrimination. Biological factors include
genetics and neuro-degenerative disorders which influence the behaviour of a person.
Development of social roles is important in providing a comprehensive approach to patient care.
This is because these make the health care professionals conform to the established standards and
work in the way that is expected of them. Psychological theories of Piaget and Freud find
important application to individuals who experience elevated levels of stress. Further, Erikson’s
and Freud’s theory are also related to behavioural disorders like autism spectrum disorders.
Moreover, psychological theories are useful in understanding the relationships between service
users/ family members and carers.
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